Cecilia M. Falbe

Influence Tactics and Objectives in Upward, Downward, and Lateral Influence Attempts

Two studies were conducted to replicate and extend previous exploratory research by Kipnis, Schmidt, and Wilkinson (1980) on influence tactics and objectives in organizations. A new questionnaire was developed that included measures of important influence tactics and objectives omitted in the earlier research. Whereas the earlier research used only agent self-reports of influence behavior, the present research used both agent and target reports. Differences in downward, lateral, and upward influence attempts were replicated more for data from agents than for data from targets. Direction of influence had a stronger effect on influence objectives than on influence tactics. Despite some differences due to data source and direction of influence, the relative frequency of use for the 8 influence tactics was remarkably similar across conditions. Consultation and rational persuasion were the tactics used most frequently, regardless of the direction of influence.

Antecedents of influence outcomes

Influence incidents described either by agents or targets were coded for the presence of 9 influence tactics, and the outcome was coded in terms of commitment, compliance, or resistance. Agent power and content factors for an incident were measured with a short questionnaire. This study is the first to show that influence tactics, agent power, and content factors independently affect influence outcomes. Target commitment was more likely when the request was important and enjoyable to implement, and the agent had strong referent power, used consultation, inspirational appeals, or a strong form of rational persuasion, and did not use pressure.

Patterns of Influence Behavior for Managers

This study involved analysis of incidents describing influence attempts from the perspective of an agent or a target. Influence behavior in the incidents was coded into nine influence tactics. A conceptual framework was presented to explain the selection and sequencing of tactics, and the model was used to derive specific hypotheses for individual tactics. Analysis of tactic combinations revealed that some tactics were used together much more often than others. Consistent with the model, some tactics were used more in initial influence attempts, and other tactics were used more in follow-up influence attempts. Differences in the use of tactics with subordinates, peers, and superiors were also consistent with the model, and the results verified directional differences found in earlier research with questionnaires.

Structure And Meaning Of Organizational Vision

Chief executives in one national and three regional samples participated in a study of the content and structure of their organizational visions. Executives clustered in three groups distinguished ...

An examination of international retail franchising in emerging markets

There has been an urgent call from both the franchise industry and the academic community for research on world franchising markets, specifically in the retail sector. This article is an attempt to summarize the main research that has been conducted thus far on international retail franchising. The article begins with an overview of the development of the literature and then discusses the nature and scope of emerging markets, with particular reference to their impact on the stakeholders of international retail franchising. Next, the article develops a conceptual model relating international retail franchising to its stakeholders. Then, a review of the research is divided into the areas of emerging world market: Central and Eastern Europe, Mexico and South America, Asia, and other areas that include India, Kuwait, and South Africa. The article concludes by discussing the next step to developing a research base for further understanding of emerging markets in addition to the opportunities and challenges for retail franchising and future research.

The effect of organizational context on entrepreneurial strategies in franchising

Abstract Franchising systems play a vital role in the creation of new jobs and economic development. Although the role of the franchisor as entrepreneur is generally assumed, there has been limited research on the conduct of entrepreneurial activities in the franchising system as a whole. In particular, researchers and practitioners need to better understand the influences of organizational context on entrepreneurial activities system-wide. The research reported in this article examines the influences of the organizational context of the franchisor on the entrepreneurial strategies of franchisors, their innovation efforts, and franchisor support of entrepreneurial activities by franchisees. Specifically, this study examines how the organizational context variables of size, age of the franchise, its growth rate (both absolute and relative), and time in franchising affect franchisee perceptions of entrepreneurial strategies of their parent franchisor, their innovation efforts, and franchisor managerial support for entrepreneurial activity and innovation by the franchisee. Franchisee perceptions of their parent franchisors’ entrepreneurial strategies were assessed with respect to four dimensions identified in previous research as central to an entrepreneurial orientation: low concern for stability, willingness to take risks, aggressiveness in competition, and proactiveness (in seeking new opportunities). Innovation by franchisors was measured with respect to introduction of new products and techniques. Drawing on research that emphasizes the importance of instituting special organizational devices and rewards and recognition systems for promoting entrepreneurial activity, franchisor support for franchisee entrepreneurial activity and innovation (e.g., the development of new products and services, new techniques to improve customer service) was measured by the importance franchisees assigned to the use of a franchise council, the recognition of new ideas at the annual meeting of the franchise system, and the presence at franchisor headquarters of a champion for innovation. Consistent with other studies examining the influence of organizational context, it was hypothesized that organizational size and age would be negatively related to franchisee assessments of entrepreneurial strategies, the introduction of new products and techniques, and franchisor managerial support for franchisee entrepreneurial activity and innovation. In contrast, rapid growth was hypothesized to be positively associated with entrepreneurial strategies and support for franchisee innovation. No hypotheses were proposed with respect to time in franchising. Results of the study showed, as hypothesized, that franchisor size was associated with a concern for stability and strategies that were risk averse, cooperative, and reactive rather than proactive. However, size was positively associated with the frequent introduction of new products and also positively related to franchisor support for franchisee innovation. Contrary to expectations, age was positively associated with entrepreneurial strategies including a low concern for stability and an aggressive style of competition. In addition, age was positively associated with the introduction of both new products and new techniques. Relative growth, rather than an absolute rate of growth, was associated with all of the entrepreneurial strategies except risk-taking as well as with the frequent introduction of new products. Although no hypotheses were proposed for time in franchising, the findings show that it is associated with a greater concern for stability as well as the infrequent introduction of new products and techniques. The findings from this study suggest that franchisors need to institute measures to counteract the potentially deleterious influences of franchise system size on the entrepreneurial orientation within their franchising systems. It also suggests the resources of a large organization need to be combined with the flexibility of smaller units for competitive advantage. Entrepreneurial activity by franchisors and franchisees implies a partnership in adapting to the environment and can provide a competitive advantage. The challenge for franchisors will be managing new ideas from the field and adapting to a competitive environment while at the same time preserving the integrity of the franchising system.

Technology, trainees, metacognitive activity and e‐learning effectiveness

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to integrate previous research findings on the factors which affect e‐learning effectiveness. To do this, a model is developed which proposes that the effects of individual learner characteristics and technology characteristics on e‐learning outcomes are partially mediated by the metacognitive learning processes in which the learner engages.Design/methodology/approach – A survey of 914 individuals in an online introductory information systems course examines the relations between general computer self‐efficacy (GCSE), locus of control, age, peer interaction, technology reliability, social presence, media synchronicity, and metacognitive activity and the e‐learning outcomes of course, performance, course utility, and course satisfaction.Findings – The results indicate that GCSE, age, social presence, reliability, media synchronicity, and metacognitive activity are related to course satisfaction and utility judgments. In addition, age, metacognitive activity, and relia...

Franchising as a Strategic Partnership: Issues of Cosoperation and Conflict in a Global Market

DR. TOM DANDRIDGE IS DIRECTOR OF the Small Business Institute at the State University of New York at Albany, United States of America, and has been working with Dr. Cecilia Falbe on research relating to franchising and to organisational theory for four years. They have increasingly attended to international franchsing and to the important issues of strategy formation and franchisors across national borders. They have also been involved in programmes fro ecnonomic development in Eastern Europe and it is from this combination that the paper emerges. The first part of the paper provides a basic overview of franchising as it has developed in the United States while the second part is conderned with managing the strategic partnership of franchisors and franchisees in a global market.

The Influence of Franchisees beyond Their Local Domain

THOMAS DANDRIDGE IS DIRECTOR OF THE Small Business Institute at the University of Albany, State University of New York. He and Dr. Cecilia M. Falbe have conducted extensive research into the franchising relationship. Franchising is an evolving organisational form with broad implications for the ways decisions are made and implemented within a large enterprise. The pervasiveness and the important roles of advisory councils are emerging participative features of management in franchised systems. This paper describes some of their impacts and looks in detail at the characteristics, functions, and importance of franchise advisory councils. It describes the results of a study of 114 franchisors who provided information on the characteristics and objectives of their advisory councils. The results provide support for the use by franchisors of the advisory council as a mechanism for channelling entrepreneurial activity directly to the franchise system.

Training-Related Variables, Gender and Training Outcomes: A Field Investigation

Abstract A two-week training programme was provided to male and female trainees. Data were collected on each of the subjects locus of control and on each subjects perception of the degree to which their work environment would be supportive of application of skills acquired in training. The outcome variables measured for the 73 trainees (35 males, 38 females) included motivation to transfer, evaluation of the training programme, the grade achieved at the conclusion of training, self-report and immediate superiors evaluation of the use of acquired skills. Data were also collected on seniority. Hierarchical regression analysis was employed to test the effect of gender, and training-related variables on training outcomes. Controlling for the effect of seniority the data indicated that gender had an impact on motivation to transfer, and gender and seniority both had a significant effect on reaction to the course. Perceived work environment support and its interaction with seniority also accounted for a sign...