Cheri S. Lazar

Protein kinase C phosphorylation at Thr 654 of the unoccupied EGF receptor and EGF binding regulate functional receptor loss by independent mechanisms

To test the functional consequence of phosphorylation of the EGF receptor at Thr 654 by protein kinase C, the normal Thr 654 human EGF receptor cDNA or a mutant encoding an Ala 654 were expressed in heterologous cells. In cell lines expressing both the Thr 654 and Ala 654 receptors, functional cell-surface Thr 654 receptors were reduced or were totally lost, but were not degraded, following activation of protein kinase C by phorbol esters (TPA), whereas Ala 654 receptors were unaffected. These data suggest that protein kinase C regulates ligand-independent receptor binding and internalization via phosphorylation of Thr 654 of the EGF holoreceptor. Because EGF induces internalization and degradation of the Ala 654 EGF receptor, at least two independent mechanisms can serve to signal loss of functional EGF receptors.

The Fic Domain: Regulation of Cell Signaling by Adenylylation

We show that the secreted antigen, IbpA, of the respiratory pathogen Histophilus somni induces cytotoxicity in mammalian cells via its Fic domains. Fic domains are defined by a core HPFxxGNGR motif and are conserved from bacteria to humans. We demonstrate that the Fic domains of IbpA catalyze a unique reversible adenylylation event that uses ATP to add an adenosine monophosphate (AMP) moiety to a conserved tyrosine residue in the switch I region of Rho GTPases. This modification requires the conserved histidine of the Fic core motif and renders Rho GTPases inactive. We further demonstrate that the only human protein containing a Fic domain, huntingtin yeast-interacting protein E (HYPE), also adenylylates Rho GTPases in vitro. Thus, we classify Fic domain-containing proteins as a class of enzymes that mediate bacterial pathogenesis as well as a previously unrecognized eukaryotic posttranslational modification that may regulate key signaling events.

Ligand-induced endocytosis of the EGF receptor is blocked by mutational inactivation and by microinjection of anti-phosphotyrosine antibodies

Early events in ligand-induced endocytosis of the EGF receptor have been examined. A mutant EGF receptor devoid of intrinsic protein-tyrosine kinase activity bound EGF and dimerized normally yet failed to undergo ligand-induced internalization. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that receptors lacking kinase activity failed to undergo the ligand-induced internalization characteristic of receptors with kinase activity. Monoclonal anti-phosphotyrosine antibodies effectively inhibited phosphorylation of exogenous substrates in vitro and, when microinjected into cells containing active EGF receptors, prevented internalization of the receptor when cells were subsequently challenged with EGF. These results point to a crucial role for the kinase activity of the EGF receptor in the process of ligand-induced endocytosis of receptors, and imply that a phosphorylated substrate(s) is required.

Endosomal localization and function of sorting nexin 1

There are 17 human members of the sorting nexin (SNX) family of proteins that contain Phox (PX) domains. Yeast orthologs function in vesicular trafficking and mammalian proteins have been implicated in endocytic trafficking of cell surface receptors. The first member of this family, SNX1, was identified via interaction with the epidermal growth factor receptor. The present studies indicate that SNX1 and SNX2 are colocalized to tubulovesicular endosomal membranes and this localization depends on PI 3-kinase activity. Point mutations in the PX domain that abolish recognition of phosphorylated phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) in vitro abolish vesicle localization in vivo indicating that lipid binding by the PX domain is necessary for localization to vesicle membranes. Deletion of a predicted coiled-coil region in the COOH terminus of SNX1 also abolished vesicle localization, indicating that this helical domain, too, is necessary for SNX1 localization. Thus, both PX domain recognition of PtdIns and COOH terminal helical domains are necessary for localization of SNX1 with neither alone being sufficient. Regulated overexpression of the NH2 terminus of SNX1 containing the PX domain decreased the rate of ligand-induced epidermal growth factor receptor degradation, an effect consistent with inhibition of endogenous SNX1 function in the endosome compartment. SNX1 thus functions in regulating trafficking in the endosome compartment via PX domain recognition of phosphorylated PtdIns and via interaction with other protein components.

The type III effector EspF coordinates membrane trafficking by the spatiotemporal activation of two eukaryotic signaling pathways.

Bacterial toxins and effector proteins hijack eukaryotic enzymes that are spatially localized and display rapid signaling kinetics. However, the molecular mechanisms by which virulence factors engage highly dynamic substrates in the host cell environment are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) type III effector protein EspF nucleates a multiprotein signaling complex composed of eukaryotic sorting nexin 9 (SNX9) and neuronal Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP). We demonstrate that a specific and high affinity association between EspF and SNX9 induces membrane remodeling in host cells. These membrane-remodeling events are directly coupled to N-WASP/Arp2/3–mediated actin nucleation. In addition to providing a biochemical mechanism of EspF function, we find that EspF dynamically localizes to membrane-trafficking organelles in a spatiotemporal pattern that correlates with SNX9 and N-WASP activity in living cells. Thus, our findings suggest that the EspF-dependent assembly of SNX9 and N-WASP represents a novel form of signaling mimicry used to promote EPEC pathogenesis and gastrointestinal disease.

Comparative Analysis of Histophilus somni Immunoglobulin-binding Protein A (IbpA) with Other Fic Domain-containing Enzymes Reveals Differences in Substrate and Nucleotide Specificities

A new family of adenylyltransferases, defined by the presence of a Fic domain, was recently discovered to catalyze the addition of adenosine monophosphate (AMP) to Rho GTPases (Yarbrough, M. L., Li, Y., Kinch, L. N., Grishin, N. V., Ball, H. L., and Orth, K. (2009) Science 323, 269–272; Worby, C. A., Mattoo, S., Kruger, R. P., Corbeil, L. B., Koller, A., Mendez, J. C., Zekarias, B., Lazar, C., and Dixon, J. E. (2009) Mol. Cell 34, 93–103). This adenylylation event inactivates Rho GTPases by preventing them from binding to their downstream effectors. We reported that the Fic domain(s) of the immunoglobulin-binding protein A (IbpA) from the pathogenic bacterium Histophilus somni adenylylates mammalian Rho GTPases, RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42, thereby inducing host cytoskeletal collapse, which allows H. somni to breach alveolar barriers and cause septicemia. The IbpA-mediated adenylylation occurs on a functionally critical tyrosine in the switch 1 region of these GTPases. Here, we conduct a detailed characterization of the IbpA Fic2 domain and compare its activity with other known Fic adenylyltransferases, VopS (Vibrio outer protein S) from the bacterial pathogen Vibrio parahaemolyticus and the human protein HYPE (huntingtin yeast interacting protein E; also called FicD). We also included the Fic domains of the secreted protein, PfhB2, from the opportunistic pathogen Pasteurella multocida, in our analysis. PfhB2 shares a common domain architecture with IbpA and contains two Fic domains. We demonstrate that the PfhB2 Fic domains also possess adenylyltransferase activity that targets the switch 1 tyrosine of Rho GTPases. Comparative kinetic and phylogenetic analyses of IbpA-Fic2 with the Fic domains of PfhB2, VopS, and HYPE reveal important aspects of their specificities for Rho GTPases and nucleotide usage and offer mechanistic insights for determining nucleotide and substrate specificities for these enzymes. Finally, we compare the evolutionary lineages of Fic proteins with those of other known adenylyltransferases.

A Novel Link between Fic (Filamentation Induced by cAMP)-mediated Adenylylation/AMPylation and the Unfolded Protein Response

Background: Adenylylation/AMPylation by Fic proteins alters cellular signaling. HYPE, the sole human Fic protein, is an adenylyltransferase. Results: BiP is identified as a substrate for HYPE. HYPE adenylylates BiP and is required for UPR induction. Conclusion: HYPE regulates ER homeostasis. Significance: Adenylylation/AMPylation is a new mode of UPR regulation. This is the first demonstration of a physiological role for human HYPE. The maintenance of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis is a critical aspect of determining cell fate and requires a properly functioning unfolded protein response (UPR). We have discovered a previously unknown role of a post-translational modification termed adenylylation/AMPylation in regulating signal transduction events during UPR induction. A family of enzymes, defined by the presence of a Fic (filamentation induced by cAMP) domain, catalyzes this adenylylation reaction. The human genome encodes a single Fic protein, called HYPE (Huntingtin yeast interacting protein E), with adenylyltransferase activity but unknown physiological target(s). Here, we demonstrate that HYPE localizes to the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum via its hydrophobic N terminus and adenylylates the ER molecular chaperone, BiP, at Ser-365 and Thr-366. BiP functions as a sentinel for protein misfolding and maintains ER homeostasis. We found that adenylylation enhances BiPs ATPase activity, which is required for refolding misfolded proteins while coping with ER stress. Accordingly, HYPE expression levels increase upon stress. Furthermore, siRNA-mediated knockdown of HYPE prevents the induction of an unfolded protein response. Thus, we identify HYPE as a new UPR regulator and provide the first functional data for Fic-mediated adenylylation in mammalian signaling.

Analysis of Functional Domains in the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Using Site-Directed Mutagenesis

Protein tyrosine kinase activity is a central feature of one class of retroviral onc genes and of several growth factor receptors including those for epidermal growth factor receptor (EGF) (Ushiro and Cohen, 1980; Hunter and Cooper, 1985), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) (Yarden et al., 1986), insulin and insulin-like growth factors (IGF) (Ebina et al., 1985; Ullrich et al., 1985), colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) (Sherr et al., 1985), and other ligands (neu) (Bargmann et al., 1986a; Yamamoto et al., 1986). The EGF receptor is the proto-oncogene for the retroviral oncogene erb B (Yamamoto et al., 1983; Downward et al., 1984a; Lin et al., 1984; Ullrich et al., 1984; Xu et al., 1984); the CSF1 receptor for v-fms (Sherr et al., 1985; Coussens et al., 1986); and the neu receptor for the transforming gene neu (Bargmann et al., 1986b). The sis oncogene of the simian sarcoma virus is homologous to the B chain of PDGF and presumably exerts its transforming effects through interaction with the normal PDGF receptor (Doolittle et al., 1983; Waterfield et al., 1983; Huang et al., 1984). Constitutive expression of TGF-α and of EGF, both of which bind to the EGF receptor, also results in cell transformation, presumably via activation of normal EGF receptors (Rosenthal et al., 1986; Stern et al., 1987). Constitutive activation of ligands may be analogous to gene amplification and quantitative over-expression of receptor protein as occurs in some human tumors (Thompson and Gill, 1985) because the initial ligand receptor interaction in a bimolecular event dependent on the concentration of both ligand and receptor (Gill et al., 1985).

Human Phosphoribosylpyrophosphate Synthetase: Relation of Activity and Quaternary Structure

Evidence from a variety of biochemical, pharmacological and clinical studies indicates that the intracellular concentration of 5-phosphoribosyl 1-pyrophosphate (PP-ribose-P)1 is an important determinant of the rate of purine nucleotide and thus uric acid synthesis (Reviews, references 1,2). PP-Ribose-P formation (Figure 1) from ATP and ribose-5-phosphate is catalyzed by the enzyme PP-ribose-P synthetase in a reaction requiring inorganic phosphate (Pi) and magnesium. Small molecule inhibitors also affect PP-ribose-P synthetase activity and include purine, pyrimidine and pyridine nucleotides as well as 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) (3). The significance of regulation of the activity of this enzyme is apparent in several families in whom purine overproduction and clinical gout result from different structural mutations in PP-ribose-P synthetase which lead to excessive enzyme activity and PP-ribose-P generation (4–6).