Chi-yue Chiu

Lay dispositionism and implicit theories of personality

Lay dispositionism refers to lay peoples tendency to use traits as the basic unit of analysis in social perception (L. Ross & R. E. Nisbett, 1991). Five studies explored the relation between the practices indicative of lay dispositionism and peoples implicit theories about the nature of personal attributes. As predicted, compared with those who believed that personal attributes are malleable (incremental theorists), those who believed in fixed traits (entity theorists) used traits or trait-relevant information to make stronger future behavioral predictions (Studies 1 and 2) and made stronger trait inferences from behavior (Study 3). Moreover, the relation between implicit theories and lay dispositionism was found in both the United States (a more individualistic culture) and Hong Kong (a more collectivistic culture), suggesting this relation to be generalizable across cultures (Study 4). Finally, an experiment in which implicit theories were manipulated provided preliminary evidence for the possible causal role of implicit theories in lay dispositionism (Study 5).

Implicit theories and conceptions of morality

In this article, the authors propose that individuals moral beliefs are linked to their implicit theories about the nature (i.e., malleability) of their social-moral reality. Specifically, it was hypothesized that when individuals believe in a fixed reality (entity theory), they tend to hold moral beliefs in which duties within the given system are seen as fundamental. In contrast, when individuals believe in a malleable reality (incremental theory), one that can be shaped by individuals, they hold moral beliefs that focus on moral principles, such as human rights, around which that reality should be organized. Results from 5 studies supported the proposed framework: Implicit theories about the malleability of ones social-moral reality predicted duty-based vs. rights-based moral beliefs.

Culture and the construal of agency : Attribution to individual versus group dispositions

The authors argue that cultures differ in implicit theories of individuals and groups. North Americans conceive of individual persons as free agents, whereas East Asians conceptualize them as constrained and as less agentic than social collectives. Hence, East Asian perceivers were expected to be more likely than North Americans to focus on and attribute causality to dispositions of collectives. In Study 1 newspaper articles about rogue trader scandals were analyzed, and it was found that U.S. papers made more mention of the individual trader involved, whereas Japanese papers referred more to the organization. Study 2 replicated this pattern among U.S. and Hong Kong participants who responded to a vignette about a maladjusted team member. Study 3 revealed the same pattern with respect to individual and group dispositionism using a different design that compared attributions for an act performed by an individual in one condition and by a group in the other condition.

Implicit Theories Individual Differences in the Likelihood and Meaning of Dispositional Inference

In their research, the authors have identified individuals who believe that a particular trait (intelligence, personality, or moral character) is a fixed disposition (entity theorists) and have contrasted them with those who believe the trait to be a malleable quality (incremental theorists). Research shows that an entity theory consistently predicts (a) global dispositional inferences for self and other; even in the face of limited evidence, as well as (b) an over reliance on dispositional information in making other judgments and decisions. An incremental theory, by contrast, predicts inferences that are more specific, conditional, and provisional The implicit beliefs seem to represent not only different theories about the nature of traits but also different mental models about how personality works-what the units of analysis are and how they enter into causal relations. Implications for the literature on person perception are discussed.

Static Versus Dynamic Theories and the Perception of Groups: Different Routes to Different Destinations

Research on lay theories suggests that people who begin the task of social perception with different starting assumptions follow different cognitive paths and reach different social endpoints. In this article, we show how laypeoples fixed (entity) versus dynamic (incremental) theories of human nature foster different meaning systems for interpreting and respondingto the same group information. Using research with adults and children, in the United States and East Asia, and concerning familiar and novel groups, wedocument how these theories influence susceptibility to stereotyping, perceptions of group homogeneity, the ultimate attribution error, intergroup bias,and discriminatory behavior. Further, we discuss social-cultural factors that produce and perpetuate these theories as well as why and when these theories are maintained and changed. The implications of this work for reducing stereotyping and intergroup conflict are considered.

The Contribution of the Lay Theories Approach to the Study of Groups

This special issue highlights the contribution of the lay theories approach to the study of groups. Six articles address the nature, development, and consequences of a variety of lay theories for group perception and behavior. First, these articles illuminate the structural, functional, and dynamic properties of lay theories as well as their scope. Second, the articles address the development of lay theories from diverse theoretical perspectives, including evolutionary, cognitive, developmental, and sociocultural learning. Third, each article documents the consequences of different lay theories for understanding group inferences and judgments. Taken together, these articles propose theoretical extensions of the lay theories approach and suggest practical implications of the lay theories approach for reducing prejudice.

Differential Use of Person Information in Decisions about Guilt Versus Innocence: The Role of Implicit Theories

The authors hypothesize that different people would use information differently in their social decision making depending on their implicit theory about human character traits. Past research has shown that entity theorists (who believe traits are fixed entities) tend to make more rapid, global trait judgments and to accord traits greater weight in explaining behavior as compared to incremental theorists (who believe traits are more malleable qualities). This article examines how potentially trait-relevant information might influence the decision making (verdicts in a fictitious murder case) of entity versus incremental theorists. Results from three studies showed that such information (e.g., the defendant’s dress at the crime) had a marked effect on entity theorists’ verdicts but little effect on incremental theorists’ verdicts. In addition, entity theorists were more likely than incremental theorists to request additional character information. Implications for the role of implicit theories in social decision making are explored.

Sex, locus of control, and illusion of control in Hong Kong as correlates of gambling involvement.

Abstract The present study of gambling behavior tested whether locus of control influences gambling involvement directly (self-confirmation hypothesis) or whether their relationship is mediated by gamblers illusion of control (mediating hypothesis). Subjects were 158 adults from all strata of Hong Kong society. Results supported the mediating hypothesis for men and the self-confirmation hypothesis for women. This gender difference was interpreted as reflecting the different culturally approved images of men and women.

Implicit Theories of Intelligence

Self-confidence and its related constructs are among the most widely researched variables in the literature on achievement. However, findings on the link between self-confidence and achievement are not consistent. While some researchers have found significant correlations between self-confidence about one’s intellectual ability and achievement outcomes (e.g., Brookover & Passalacqua, 1981; J. G. Jones & Grieneeks, 1970; Marsh, 1984; Shavelson & Bolus, 1982; Shell, Murphy, & Bruning, 1989; for a review, see Hattie, 1992), others find only weak associations between the two variables (for a meta-analysis, see Hansford & Hattie, 1982).

The Role of Face Situation and Attitudinal Antecedents in Chinese Consumer Complaint Behavior

Abstract An experiment investigating Chinese consumer complaint behavior was conducted in the Sports Center at the University of Hong Kong. Subjects were 53 male and 6 female college students. The dependent variable was whether or not the students would complain after buying a faulty product. It was hypothesized that, because of the salience of face concern in Chinese culture, students would be less likely to complain when the complaint situation involved direct confrontation with the responsible party than when it did not. Results supported the hypothesis. Three attitudes toward complaining were compared: perceived cost of complaining, norms of complaining, and perceived societal benefits of complaining. Only the cost of complaining discriminated between complainers and noncomplainers. This pattern of results is very different from that found in the West.