Christiane Haffner

Selective Lengthening of the Cell Cycle in the Neurogenic Subpopulation of Neural Progenitor Cells during Mouse Brain Development

During embryonic development of the mammalian brain, the average cell-cycle length of progenitor cells in the ventricular zone is known to increase. However, for any given region of the developing cortex and stage of neurogenesis, the length of the cell cycle is thought to be similar in the two coexisting subpopulations of progenitors [i.e., those undergoing (symmetric) proliferative divisions and those undergoing (either asymmetric or symmetric) neuron-generating divisions]. Using cumulative bromodeoxyuridine labeling of Tis21-green fluorescent protein knock-in mouse embryos, in which these two subpopulations of progenitors can be distinguished in vivo, we now show that at the onset as well as advanced stages of telencephalic neurogenesis, progenitors undergoing neuron-generating divisions are characterized by a significantly longer cell cycle than progenitors undergoing proliferative divisions. In addition, we find that the recently characterized neuronal progenitors dividing at the basal side of the ventricular zone and in the subventricular zone have a longer G2 phase than those dividing at the ventricular surface. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis (Calegari and Huttner, 2003) that cell-cycle lengthening can causally contribute to neural progenitors switching from proliferative to neuron-generating divisions and may have important implications for the expansion of somatic stem cells in general.

miRNAs are essential for survival and differentiation of newborn neurons but not for expansion of neural progenitors during early neurogenesis in the mouse embryonic neocortex

Neurogenesis during the development of the mammalian cerebral cortex involves a switch of neural stem and progenitor cells from proliferation to differentiation. To explore the possible role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in this process, we conditionally ablated Dicer in the developing mouse neocortex using Emx1-Cre, which is specifically expressed in the dorsal telencephalon as early as embryonic day (E) 9.5. Dicer ablation in neuroepithelial cells, which are the primary neural stem and progenitor cells, and in the neurons derived from them, was evident from E10.5 onwards, as ascertained by the depletion of the normally abundant miRNAs miR-9 and miR-124. Dicer ablation resulted in massive hypotrophy of the postnatal cortex and death of the mice shortly after weaning. Analysis of the cytoarchitecture of the Dicer-ablated cortex revealed a marked reduction in radial thickness starting at E13.5, and defective cortical layering postnatally. Whereas the former was due to neuronal apoptosis starting at E12.5, which was the earliest detectable phenotype, the latter reflected dramatic impairment of neuronal differentiation. Remarkably, the primary target cells of Dicer ablation, the neuroepithelial cells, and the neurogenic progenitors derived from them, were unaffected by miRNA depletion with regard to cell cycle progression, cell division, differentiation and viability during the early stage of neurogenesis, and only underwent apoptosis starting at E14.5. Our results support the emerging concept that progenitors are less dependent on miRNAs than their differentiated progeny, and raise interesting perspectives as to the expansion of somatic stem cells.

Neural stem and progenitor cells shorten S-phase on commitment to neuron production

During mammalian cerebral cortex development, the G1-phase of the cell cycle is known to lengthen, but it has been unclear which neural stem and progenitor cells are affected. In this paper, we develop a novel approach to determine cell-cycle parameters in specific classes of neural stem and progenitor cells, identified by molecular markers rather than location. We found that G1 lengthening was associated with the transition from stem cell-like apical progenitors to fate-restricted basal (intermediate) progenitors. Unexpectedly, expanding apical and basal progenitors exhibit a substantially longer S-phase than apical and basal progenitors committed to neuron production. Comparative genome-wide gene expression analysis of expanding versus committed progenitor cells revealed changes in key factors of cell-cycle regulation, DNA replication and repair and chromatin remodelling. Our findings suggest that expanding neural stem and progenitor cells invest more time during S-phase into quality control of replicated DNA than those committed to neuron production.

Human-specific gene ARHGAP11B promotes basal progenitor amplification and neocortex expansion

Build the builders before the brain Humans are much smarter than mice—key to this is the relative thickness of the human brains neocortex. Florio et al. combed through genes expressed in the progenitor cells that build the neocortex and zeroed in on one gene found in humans but not in mice. The gene, which seems to differentiate humans from chimpanzees, drives proliferation of the key progenitor cells. Mice expressing this human gene during development built more elaborate brains. Science, this issue p. 1465 A gene found in modern humans but not mice drives proliferation of the neural progenitor cells that build the brain’s neocortex. Evolutionary expansion of the human neocortex reflects increased amplification of basal progenitors in the subventricular zone, producing more neurons during fetal corticogenesis. In this work, we analyze the transcriptomes of distinct progenitor subpopulations isolated by a cell polarity–based approach from developing mouse and human neocortex. We identify 56 genes preferentially expressed in human apical and basal radial glia that lack mouse orthologs. Among these, ARHGAP11B has the highest degree of radial glia–specific expression. ARHGAP11B arose from partial duplication of ARHGAP11A (which encodes a Rho guanosine triphosphatase–activating protein) on the human lineage after separation from the chimpanzee lineage. Expression of ARHGAP11B in embryonic mouse neocortex promotes basal progenitor generation and self-renewal and can increase cortical plate area and induce gyrification. Hence, ARHGAP11B may have contributed to evolutionary expansion of human neocortex.

Insulinoma-Associated 1 Has a Panneurogenic Role and Promotes the Generation and Expansion of Basal Progenitors in the Developing Mouse Neocortex

Basal (intermediate) progenitors are the major source of neurons in the mammalian neocortex. The molecular machinery governing basal progenitor biogenesis is unknown. Here, we show that the zinc-finger transcription factor Insm1 (insulinoma-associated 1) is expressed specifically in progenitors undergoing neurogenic divisions, has a panneurogenic role throughout the brain, and promotes basal progenitor formation in the neocortex. Mouse embryos lacking Insm1 contained half the number of basal progenitors and showed a marked reduction in cortical plate radial thickness. Forced premature expression of Insm1 in neuroepithelial cells resulted in their mitosis occurring at the basal (rather than apical) side of the ventricular zone and induced expression of the basal progenitor marker Tbr2. Remarkably, these cells remained negative for Tis21, a marker of neurogenic progenitors, and did not generate neurons but underwent self-amplification. Our data imply that Insm1 is involved in the generation and expansion of basal progenitors, a hallmark of neocortex evolution.

Sustained Pax6 Expression Generates Primate-like Basal Radial Glia in Developing Mouse Neocortex

The evolutionary expansion of the neocortex in mammals has been linked to enlargement of the subventricular zone (SVZ) and increased proliferative capacity of basal progenitors (BPs), notably basal radial glia (bRG). The transcription factor Pax6 is known to be highly expressed in primate, but not mouse, BPs. Here, we demonstrate that sustaining Pax6 expression selectively in BP-genic apical radial glia (aRG) and their BP progeny of embryonic mouse neocortex suffices to induce primate-like progenitor behaviour. Specifically, we conditionally expressed Pax6 by in utero electroporation using a novel, Tis21–CreERT2 mouse line. This expression altered aRG cleavage plane orientation to promote bRG generation, increased cell-cycle re-entry of BPs, and ultimately increased upper-layer neuron production. Upper-layer neuron production was also increased in double-transgenic mouse embryos with sustained Pax6 expression in the neurogenic lineage. Strikingly, increased BPs existed not only in the SVZ but also in the intermediate zone of the neocortex of these double-transgenic mouse embryos. In mutant mouse embryos lacking functional Pax6, the proportion of bRG among BPs was reduced. Our data identify specific Pax6 effects in BPs and imply that sustaining this Pax6 function in BPs could be a key aspect of SVZ enlargement and, consequently, the evolutionary expansion of the neocortex.

Epigenome profiling and editing of neocortical progenitor cells during development

The generation of neocortical neurons from neural progenitor cells (NPCs) is primarily controlled by transcription factors binding to DNA in the context of chromatin. To understand the complex layer of regulation that orchestrates different NPC types from the same DNA sequence, epigenome maps with cell type resolution are required. Here, we present genomewide histone methylation maps for distinct neural cell populations in the developing mouse neocortex. Using different chromatin features, we identify potential novel regulators of cortical NPCs. Moreover, we identify extensive H3K27me3 changes between NPC subtypes coinciding with major developmental and cell biological transitions. Interestingly, we detect dynamic H3K27me3 changes on promoters of several crucial transcription factors, including the basal progenitor regulator Eomes. We use catalytically inactive Cas9 fused with the histone methyltransferase Ezh2 to edit H3K27me3 at the Eomes locus in vivo, which results in reduced Tbr2 expression and lower basal progenitor abundance, underscoring the relevance of dynamic H3K27me3 changes during neocortex development. Taken together, we provide a rich resource of neocortical histone methylation data and outline an approach to investigate its contribution to the regulation of selected genes during neocortical development.

A new approach to manipulate the fate of single neural stem cells in tissue

A challenge in the field of neural stem cell biology is the mechanistic dissection of single stem cell behavior in tissue. Although such behavior can be tracked by sophisticated imaging techniques, current methods of genetic manipulation do not allow researchers to change the level of a defined gene product on a truly acute time scale and are limited to very few genes at a time. To overcome these limitations, we established microinjection of neuroepithelial/radial glial cells (apical progenitors) in organotypic slice culture of embryonic mouse brain. Microinjected apical progenitors showed cell cycle parameters that were indistinguishable to apical progenitors in utero, underwent self-renewing divisions and generated neurons. Microinjection of single genes, recombinant proteins or complex mixtures of RNA was found to elicit acute and defined changes in apical progenitor behavior and progeny fate. Thus, apical progenitor microinjection provides a new approach to acutely manipulating single neural stem and progenitor cells in tissue.

Microinjection of membrane-impermeable molecules into single neural stem cells in brain tissue

This microinjection protocol allows the manipulation and tracking of neural stem and progenitor cells in tissue at single-cell resolution. We demonstrate how to apply microinjection to organotypic brain slices obtained from mice and ferrets; however, our technique is not limited to mouse and ferret embryos, but provides a means of introducing a wide variety of membrane-impermeable molecules (e.g., nucleic acids, proteins, hydrophilic compounds) into neural stem and progenitor cells of any developing mammalian brain. Microinjection experiments are conducted by using a phase-contrast microscope equipped with epifluorescence, a transjector and a micromanipulator. The procedure normally takes ∼2 h for an experienced researcher, and the entire protocol, including tissue processing, can be performed within 1 week. Thus, microinjection is a unique and versatile method for changing and tracking the fate of a cell in organotypic slice culture.

Non-canonical features of the Golgi apparatus in bipolar epithelial neural stem cells

Apical radial glia (aRG), the stem cells in developing neocortex, are unique bipolar epithelial cells, extending an apical process to the ventricle and a basal process to the basal lamina. Here, we report novel features of the Golgi apparatus, a central organelle for cell polarity, in mouse aRGs. The Golgi was confined to the apical process but not associated with apical centrosome(s). In contrast, in aRG-derived, delaminating basal progenitors that lose apical polarity, the Golgi became pericentrosomal. The aRG Golgi underwent evolutionarily conserved, accordion-like compression and extension concomitant with cell cycle-dependent nuclear migration. Importantly, in line with endoplasmic reticulum but not Golgi being present in the aRG basal process, its plasma membrane contained glycans lacking Golgi processing, consistent with direct ER-to-cell surface membrane traffic. Our study reveals hitherto unknown complexity of neural stem cell polarity, differential Golgi contribution to their specific architecture, and fundamental Golgi re-organization upon cell fate change.