Christoph Görg

Provision of ecosystem services is determined by human agency, not ecosystem functions. Four case studies

Ecosystem services (ESS) are frequently described as nature’s free gift to humankind. However, the first step of ESS and benefit generation is recognising the usability of structures, processes and outputs of ecosystems. This use-value attribution transforms the ecosystem functions (ESF) into ecosystem service potentials (ESP). By investing physical resources, energy and labour, and frequently money as a means to provide them, agents mobilise (part of) the potentials. Cultural, economic and legal constraints limit the mobilisation. The resulting ESS are appropriated to be directly consumed, exploited to provide other goods and services, or marketed, resulting in monetary income. Changing use-value attribution leads to change service potentials, to different mobilisation and appropriation patterns, and different benefits. Human agency, not ESF determine the services provided. This is illustrated by comparing traditional and current services generated from the same ecosystem in four countries undergoing socio-economic transitions: Kenya, Mongolia, the Philippines and Vietnam. All four cases show that changing habits, preferences and modes of regulation lead to specific services provided. Institutions such as tradition, belief systems, markets or state planning are the key to understand which ESS are generated from any ESF. Value attribution, mobilisation and appropriation are key processes.

Post-Fordist governance of nature: The internationalization of the state and the case of genetic resources – a Neo-Poulantzian perspective

ABSTRACT Compared with the stated aims and the claims for urgent action, multilateral environmental agreements show unsatisfying results. Among other reasons – e.g. a deficit in national implementation – lack of coherence among a variety of overlapping and sometimes contradictory international institutions is considered as one major cause which needs to be overcome. In this article, however, it is argued that this lack of coherence is not a result of a lack of cooperation but a form of governance failure strongly connected with the political and economic structures of global capitalism and its ongoing neoliberal-imperial transformation. Moreover, it is demonstrated that this governance failure is a by-product of the articulation of sometimes antagonistic interests and related power relations inscribed in different national and international institutions. Building on the concept of societal relationships with nature, on historical-materialist state theory and its perspective of the internationalization of the state as well as on the regulation approach, the paper analyzes the tension between different international institutions in order to understand the actual transformations towards a post-Fordist governance of nature. The empirical issues dealt with are different international regulations concerning the appropriation of genetic resources, especially the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) of the World Trade Organization (WTO).

The state and the regulation of biodiversity: International biopolitics and the case of Mexico

In this article, the evolving forms of biodiversity politics are examined in the light of regulation theory and in the tradition of materialistic state theory (Gramsci, Poulantzas, etc.). Biodiversity politics is not so much oriented toward the conservation of biodiversity as towards the creation of a stable political–institutional framework for its commercialization. In this contested and contradictory process, the nation state plays a crucial role. After a few remarks on the theoretical assumptions, some basic elements of the international regulation system of genetic resources are presented. The main topics of international biodiversity politics beside conservation are: access to biodiversity and its genetic resources, benefit sharing from its use and intellectual property rights. A major problem of this system is the relationship between varying negotiation processes in different fora. Another closely connected problem is the contradictory relationship between different regulatory levels at different spatial scales (international, regional, local). These contradictions are analyzed for the case of Mexico. Central issues of Mexican biodiversity politics, and the different actors, forces and interests are outlined and discussed against our initial theoretical reflections. Bioprospecting projects in the south of Mexico have raised questions of legal and legitimate forms of access, which have generated growing concern and significant disputes within Mexico. Finally, some conclusions are drawn, binding together the theoretical with the empirical results of our study. 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

The Network of Knowledge approach: improving the science and society dialogue on biodiversity and ecosystem services in Europe

The absence of a good interface between scientific and other knowledge holders and decision-makers in the area of biodiversity and ecosystem services has been recognised for a long time. Despite recent advancements, e.g. with the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), challenges remain, particularly concerning the timely provision of consolidated views from different knowledge domains. To address this challenge, a strong and flexible networking approach is needed across knowledge domains and institutions. Here, we report on a broad consultation process across Europe to develop a Network of Knowledge on biodiversity and ecosystem services (NoK), an approach aiming at (1) organising institutions and knowledge holders in an adaptable and responsive framework and (2) informing decision-makers with timely and accurate biodiversity knowledge. The consultation provided a critical analysis of the needs that should be addressed by a NoK and how it could complement existing European initiatives and institutions at the interface between policy and science. Among other functions, the NoK provides consolidated scientific views on contested topics, identification of research gaps to support relevant policies, and horizon scanning activities to anticipate emerging issues. The NoK includes a capacity building component on interfacing activities and contains mechanisms to ensure its credibility, relevance and legitimacy. Such a network would need to ensure credibility, relevance and legitimacy of its work by maximizing transparency and flexibility of processes, quality of outputs, the link to data and knowledge provision, the motivation of experts for getting involved and sound communication and capacity building.

Engaging Local Knowledge in Biodiversity Research: Experiences from Large Inter- and Transdisciplinary Projects

Abstract The management of biodiversity represents a research topic that needs to involve not only several (sub-) disciplines from the natural sciences but, in particular, also the social sciences and humanities. Furthermore, over the last couple of years, the need for the integration of other kinds of knowledge (experience based or indigenous knowledge) is increasingly acknowledged. For instance, the incorporation of such knowledge is indispensable for place-based approaches to sustainable land management, which require that the specific ecological and social context is addressed. However, desirable as it may be, such an engagement of the holders of tacit knowledge is not easy to achieve. It demands reconciling well-established scientific procedural standards with the implicit or explicit criteria of relevance that apply in civil society — a process that typically causes severe tensions and comes up against both habitual as well as institutional constraints. The difficulty of managing such tensions is amplified particularly in large integrated projects and represents a major challenge to project management. At the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research — UFZ, several integrated research projects have been conducted over the past years in which experience has been gained with these specific challenges. This paper presents some of the lessons learned from large integrated projects, with an emphasis on project design and management structure. At the centre of the present contribution are experiences gained in the coordination and management of LEGATO (LEGATO stands for Land-use intensity and Ecological EnGineering — Assessment Tools for risks and Opportunities in irrigated rice based production systems, see www.legato-project.net), an ongoing, large-scale, inter- and transdisciplinary research project dealing with the management of irrigated rice landscapes in Southeast Asia. In this project, local expertise on traditional production systems is absolutely crucial but needs to be integrated with natural and social science research to identify future-proof land management systems.

Contested Regimes in the International Political Economy: Global Regulation of Genetic Resources and the Internationalization of the State

This article analyses the complex interconnections between global environmental politics and trade politics against the background of biodiversity politics. Genetic resources are one of the most important inputs in post-Fordist economies: they are the raw materials of the new biotechnology companies. The system of global environmental governance that has emerged in recent years was established by a number of international institutions and organizations to serve as a political-institutional framework for emerging global markets. To date, this system has not proved to be an effective regulative framework. On the contrary, it is highly contradictory and contested. We develop theoretical and empirical arguments why and in which form the transforming national state remains crucial in global environmental politics. We call this transformation the internationalization of the state. It is argued that the emerging post-Fordist relationships with nature, as a highly contested process, are stabilized by a new kind of global political regulation and domination. This article is theoretically informed by the concept of societal relationships with nature, regulation and critical state theory as well as Gramscis concept of hegemony.

The Regulation of the Market and the Transformation of the Societal Relationships with Nature

The era of neo-liberal globalization appears to be drawing to a close. This is true not only at the national level, where social democratic governments are appearing on the scene with the claim to formulate alternative policies to the neo-liberals. At the international level, too, awareness is growing that “the market” on its own is increasingly fraught with crisis. As early as 1997, the World Bank came to the conclusion that an “effective state” was necessary, and the latest United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report regards comprehensive international coordination mechanisms to be essential.1 Even economic liberals such as George Soros, struck by the 1997 economic crises in the East and Southeast Asian countries, are demanding effective international political instruments to prevent such

Transdisciplinary Enrichment of a Linear Research Process: Experiences Gathered from a Research Project Supporting the European Biodiversity Strategy to 2020

Abstract This paper presents an analysis of a research project conducted by a network of environmental research institutes called Partnership for European Environmental Research (PEER). Our analysis constitutes a reflection on this research project based on a proposed ideal-typical transdisciplinary research process developed by . The aim of the PRESS project (PEER Research on EcoSystem Services) was to provide support for the development and implementation of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020, with a special emphasis on the ecosystem services concept. Our analysis of the research phases of the PRESS project shows that not all of the project elements accord with the notion of a full-scale transdisciplinary process. Despite this, a number of lessons can be learned regarding the use of different boundary objects for knowledge integration and the various roles played by researchers. We also identify some constraints with regard to synchronizing policy and project cycles and consider the advantages and disadvantages of research network structures in facilitating long-term cooperation.

Die Regulation der biologischen Vielfalt und die Krise gesellschaftlicher Naturverhältnisse

Okologische Probleme haben Ende der 90er Jahre wieder einen schweren Stand. Erst 1992 mit der Konferenz fur Umwelt und Entwicklung der Vereinten Nation (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro schien die Dringlichkeit einer Bearbeitung dieser Probleme endgultig anerkannt worden zu sein. Doch schon einige Jahre spater treten sie nach Ansicht vieler Beobachter wieder zuruck in den Schatten vermeintlich rein sozialer Probleme und Krisenerscheinungen, von Arbeitslosigkeit, fehlendem Wirtschaftswachstum und der „Krise des Sozialstaats“. Doch diese Einschatzung, die auch keineswegs allgemein geteilt wird, reist Prozesse auseinander, die eigentlich zusammengehoren und reproduziert damit einen Fehler, der die Diskussion uber okologische Probleme von Anfang an begleitet hat. Indem namlich „okologische“ und „soziale Fragen“ als zwei vollig unterschiedliche, einander ablosende und scheinbar ausschliesende Problemtypen gefast wurden, wurde versaumt, ihrem Zusammenhang in der Gestaltung gesellschaftlicher Naturverhaltnisse nachzugehen. Inzwischen wird aber immer deutlicher sichtbar, das Umweltprobleme zu ihrer „Losung“ eine andere Form der Bearbeitung sozialer „Probleme“ voraussetzen, genauso wie die Regulation sozialer Verhaltnisse 1 eine Regulation der Naturverhaltnisse beinhaltet.

Schutz durch nachhaltige Nutzung? Der Konflikt um die biologische Vielfalt

Obwohl die Erosion der biologischen Vielfalt zusammen mit den anthropogenen Klimaveranderungen und der Ausdunnung der Ozonschicht zu den drei wichtigsten globalen Umweltproblemen gerechnet wird, entspricht diese Gewichtung keineswegs der offentlichen wie (insbesondere auch sozial-) wissenschaftlichen Aufmerksamkeit. Dies mag mit der Komplexitat dieses Problemfeldes zusammenhangen, das dazu einladt, immer wieder auf einen Aspekt, den des Artenschutzes, reduziert und damit in seiner Bedeutung verfehlt zu werden. Als umfassendes Problem verweist der Begriff der biologischen Vielfalt aber auf nichts weniger als auf die Grundlagen und die Bedingung der Moglichkeit der Evolution des Lebens auf der Erde, von der der Mensch in vielfaltiger Weise abhangig ist. Damit ist dieses Konfliktfeld nicht nur von zentraler Bedeutung fur die Suche nach einer nachhaltigen Form gesellschaftlicher Entwicklung. Der Begriff der Nachhaltigkeit gehort im Begriff des „sustainable use“ zu den primaren Zielen der auf dem UNCEDGipfel in Rio 1992 beschlossenen „Konvention uber die Biologische Vielfalt“1. „Schutz und nachhaltige Nutzung“ ist die in dieser Konvention, die im Herbst 1993 in Kraft getreten ist und bislang von uber 130 Staaten ratifiziert wurde, verbindlich festgelegte Zielvorstellung.