Christopher N. Savory

Beyond methylammonium lead iodide: prospects for the emergent field of ns2 containing solar absorbers

The field of photovoltaics is undergoing a surge of interest following the recent discovery of the lead hybrid perovskites as a remarkably efficient class of solar absorber. Of these, methylammonium lead iodide (MAPI) has garnered significant attention due to its record breaking efficiencies, however, there are growing concerns surrounding its long-term stability. Many of the excellent properties seen in hybrid perovskites are thought to derive from the 6s2 electronic configuration of lead, a configuration seen in a range of post-transition metal compounds. In this review we look beyond MAPI to other ns2 solar absorbers, with the aim of identifying those materials likely to achieve high efficiencies. The ideal properties essential to produce highly efficient solar cells are discussed and used as a framework to assess the broad range of compounds this field encompasses. Bringing together the lessons learned from this wide-ranging collection of materials will be essential as attention turns toward producing the next generation of solar absorbers.

Can Pb-Free Halide Double Perovskites Support High-Efficiency Solar Cells?

The methylammonium lead halides have become champion photoactive semiconductors for solar cell applications; however, issues still remain with respect to chemical instability and potential toxicity. Recently, the Cs2AgBiX6 (X = Cl, Br) double perovskite family has been synthesized and investigated as stable nontoxic replacements. We probe the chemical bonding, physical properties, and cation anti-site disorder of Cs2AgBiX6 and related compounds from first-principles. We demonstrate that the combination of Ag(I) and Bi(III) leads to the wide indirect band gaps with large carrier effective masses owing to a mismatch in angular momentum of the frontier atomic orbitals. The spectroscopically limited photovoltaic conversion efficiency is less than 10% for X = Cl or Br. This limitation can be overcome by replacing Ag with In or Tl; however, the resulting compounds are predicted to be unstable thermodynamically. The search for nontoxic bismuth perovskites must expand beyond the Cs2AgBiX6 motif.

(CH3NH3)2Pb(SCN)2I2: A More Stable Structural Motif for Hybrid Halide Photovoltaics?

Hybrid halide perovskites have recently emerged as a highly efficient class of light absorbers; however, there are increasing concerns over their long-term stability. Recently, incorporation of SCN(-) has been suggested as a novel route to improving stability without negatively impacting performance. Intriguingly, despite crystallizing in a 2D layered structure, (CH3NH3)2Pb(SCN)2I2 (MAPSI) possesses an ideal band gap of 1.53 eV, close to that of the 3D connected champion hybrid perovskite absorber, CH3NH3PbI3 (MAPI). Here, we identify, using hybrid density functional theory, the origin of the smaller than expected band gap of MAPSI through a detailed comparison with the electronic structure of MAPI. Furthermore, assessment of the MAPSI structure reveals that it is thermodynamically stable with respect to phase separation, a likely source of the increased stability reported in experiment.

The vapour phase detection of explosive markers and derivatives using two fluorescent metal–organic frameworks

Two fluorescent metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) [Zn(dcbpy)(DMF)]·DMF and [Dy(dcbpy)(DMF)2(NO3)] (dcbpy = 2,2′-bipyridine-4,4′-dicarboxylate) were synthesised solvothermally and structurally characterised. Uniform shape and sized microcrystals of [Zn(dcbpy)(DMF)]·DMF were also produced using microwave synthesis. The frameworks give organic linker-based fluorescence emission and demonstrate very different detection capabilities towards the explosive taggant 2,3-dimethyl-2,3-dinitrobutane (DMNB) and trinitrotoluene (TNT) derivatives; 2,4-dinitrotoulene (2,4-DNT), nitrobenzene (NB) and para-nitrotoluene (p-NT). These differences are attributed to the variation in the overall framework architecture between the two MOFs. This paper reiterates the key importance of MOF porosity in sensing applications, and highlights the value of uniform microcrystals to sensitivity.

Vibronic Structure in Room Temperature Photoluminescence of the Halide Perovskite Cs3Bi2Br9

We report a study on the optical properties of the layered polymorph of vacancy-ordered triple perovskite Cs3Bi2Br9. The electronic structure, determined from density functional theory calculations, shows the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band minima are, unusually, dominated by Bi s and p states, respectively. This produces a sharp exciton peak in the absorption spectra with a binding energy that was approximated to be 940 meV, which is substantially stronger than values found in other halide perovskites and, instead, more closely reflects values seen in alkali halide crystals. This large binding energy is indicative of a strongly localized character and results in a highly structured emission at room temperature as the exciton couples to vibrations in the lattice.

Electronic and defect properties of (CH3NH3)2Pb(SCN)2I2 analogues for photovoltaic applications

In the past 5 years, hybrid halide perovskites have emerged as a class of highly efficient photovoltaic (PV) absorbers, with excellent electronic properties and low cost synthesis routes. Unfortunately, despite much research effort, their long-term stability is poor and presents a major obstacle toward commercialisation. The layered perovskite (CH3NH3)2Pb(SCN)2I2 (MAPSI) has recently been identified as a promising PV candidate material due to its enhanced stability and favourable electronic properties. Here, we demonstrate, using relativistic hybrid density functional theory, that the MAPSI structural motif can be extended to include a range of other metals, halides and even pseudohalides. In this way, the electronic structure of MAPSI can be tuned without affecting its stability with respect towards decomposition. These results indicate the possibility of lead-free MAPSI analogues, with suitable properties for photovoltaic top cells in tandem devices.

Core Levels, Band Alignments, and Valence-Band States in CuSbS2 for Solar Cell Applications

The earth-abundant material CuSbS2 (CAS) has shown good optical properties as a photovoltaic solar absorber material, but has seen relatively poor solar cell performance. To investigate the reason for this anomaly, the core levels of the constituent elements, surface contaminants, ionization potential, and valence-band spectra are studied by X-ray photoemission spectroscopy. The ionization potential and electron affinity for this material (4.98 and 3.43 eV) are lower than those for other common absorbers, including CuInxGa(1-x)Se2 (CIGS). Experimentally corroborated density functional theory (DFT) calculations show that the valence band maximum is raised by the lone pair electrons from the antimony cations contributing additional states when compared with indium or gallium cations in CIGS. The resulting conduction band misalignment with CdS is a reason for the poor performance of cells incorporating a CAS/CdS heterojunction, supporting the idea that using a cell design analogous to CIGS is unhelpful. These findings underline the critical importance of considering the electronic structure when selecting cell architectures that optimize open-circuit voltages and cell efficiencies.

Spatial Electron-hole Separation in a One Dimensional Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Lead Iodide

The increasing efficiency of the inorganic-organic hybrid halides has revolutionised photovoltaic research. Despite this rapid progress, the significant issues of poor stability and toxicity have yet to be suitably overcome. In this article, we use Density Functional Theory to examine (Pb2I6) · (H2DPNDI) · (H2O) · (NMP), an alternative lead-based hybrid inorganic-organic solar absorber based on a photoactive organic cation. Our results demonstrate that optical properties suitable for photovoltaic applications, in addition to spatial electron-hole separation, are possible but efficient charge transport may be a limiting factor.

Band gap temperature-dependence and exciton-like state in copper antimony sulphide, CuSbS2

The temperature-dependence of the band gap of the proposed photovoltaic absorber copper antimony sulphide (CuSbS2) has been studied by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The direct gap rises from 1.608 to 1.694 eV between 300 and 4.2 K. Below 200 K an exciton-like feature develops above the absorption edge at 1.82 eV. First-principles calculations evaluate band structure, band symmetries, and dipole selection rules, suggesting distinctly enhanced absorption for certain excitonic optical transitions. Striking consistency is seen between predicted dielectric and absorption spectra and those determined by ellipsometry, which reveal rapidly strengthening absorption passing 105cm-1at 2.2 eV. These results suggest beneficial photovoltaic performance due to strong optical absorption arising from unusually strong electron-hole interactions in polycrystalline CuSbS2material.