Daichi Okuno

Rotation and structure of FoF1-ATP synthase.

F(o)F(1)-ATP synthase is one of the most ubiquitous enzymes; it is found widely in the biological world, including the plasma membrane of bacteria, inner membrane of mitochondria and thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts. However, this enzyme has a unique mechanism of action: it is composed of two mechanical rotary motors, each driven by ATP hydrolysis or proton flux down the membrane potential of protons. The two molecular motors interconvert the chemical energy of ATP hydrolysis and proton electrochemical potential via the mechanical rotation of the rotary shaft. This unique energy transmission mechanism is not found in other biological systems. Although there are other similar man-made systems like hydroelectric generators, F(o)F(1)-ATP synthase operates on the nanometre scale and works with extremely high efficiency. Therefore, this enzyme has attracted significant attention in a wide variety of fields from bioenergetics and biophysics to chemistry, physics and nanoscience. This review summarizes the latest findings about the two motors of F(o)F(1)-ATP synthase as well as a brief historical background.

Mechanical modulation of catalytic power on F1-ATPase

The conformational fluctuation of enzymes has a crucial role in reaction acceleration. However, the contribution to catalysis enhancement of individual substates with conformations far from the average conformation remains unclear. We studied the catalytic power of the rotary molecular motor F(1)-ATPase from thermophilic Bacillus PS3 as it was stalled in transient conformations far from a stable pausing angle. The rate constants of ATP binding and hydrolysis were determined as functions of the rotary angle. Both rates exponentially increase with rotation, revealing the molecular basis of positive cooperativity among three catalytic sites: elementary reaction steps are accelerated via the mechanical rotation driven by other reactions on neighboring catalytic sites. The rate enhancement induced by ATP binding upon rotation was greater than that brought about by hydrolysis, suggesting that the ATP binding step contributes more to torque generation than does the hydrolysis step. Additionally, 9% of the ATP-driven rotary step was supported by thermal diffusion, suggesting that acceleration of the ATP docking process occurs via thermally agitated conformational fluctuations.

Correlation between the conformational states of F1-ATPase as determined from its crystal structure and single-molecule rotation

F1-ATPase is a rotary molecular motor driven by ATP hydrolysis that rotates the γ-subunit against the α3β3 ring. The crystal structures of F1, which provide the structural basis for the catalysis mechanism, have shown essentially 1 stable conformational state. In contrast, single-molecule studies have revealed that F1 has 2 stable conformational states: ATP-binding dwell state and catalytic dwell state. Although structural and single-molecule studies are crucial for the understanding of the molecular mechanism of F1, it remains unclear as to which catalytic state the crystal structure represents. To address this issue, we introduced cysteine residues at βE391 and γR84 of F1 from thermophilic Bacillus PS3. In the crystal structures of the mitochondrial F1, the corresponding residues in the ADP-bound β (βDP) and γ were in direct contact. The βE190D mutation was additionally introduced into the β to slow ATP hydrolysis. By incorporating a single copy of the mutant β-subunit, the chimera F1, α3β2β(E190D/E391C)γ(R84C), was prepared. In single-molecule rotation assay, chimera F1 showed a catalytic dwell pause in every turn because of the slowed ATP hydrolysis of β(E190D/E391C). When the mutant β and γ were cross-linked through a disulfide bond between βE391C and γR84C, F1 paused the rotation at the catalytic dwell angle of β(E190D/E391C), indicating that the crystal structure represents the catalytic dwell state and that βDP is the catalytically active form. The former point was again confirmed in experiments where F1 rotation was inhibited by adenosine-5′-(β,γ-imino)-triphosphate and/or azide, the most commonly used inhibitors for the crystallization of F1.

Principal role of the arginine finger in rotary catalysis of F1-ATPase

Background: The role of arginine finger of F1-ATPase in acceleration of hydrolysis and cooperativity is controversial. Results: An arginine finger mutant (αR364K) of thermophilic Bacillus PS3 F1-ATPase showed slow, successive, unidirectional rotations with tight chemomechanical coupling. Conclusion: The arginine finger of F1-ATPase accelerates ATP hydrolysis and is dispensable for cooperativity. Significance: The arginine finger is involved in the rotary catalysis of F1-ATPase. F1-ATPase (F1) is an ATP-driven rotary motor wherein the γ subunit rotates against the surrounding α3β3 stator ring. The 3 catalytic sites of F1 reside on the interface of the α and β subunits of the α3β3 ring. While the catalytic residues predominantly reside on the β subunit, the α subunit has 1 catalytically critical arginine, termed the arginine finger, with stereogeometric similarities with the arginine finger of G-protein-activating proteins. However, the principal role of the arginine finger of F1 remains controversial. We studied the role of the arginine finger by analyzing the rotation of a mutant F1 with a lysine substitution of the arginine finger. The mutant showed a 350-fold longer catalytic pause than the wild-type; this pause was further lengthened by the slowly hydrolyzed ATP analog ATPγS. On the other hand, the mutant F1 showed highly unidirectional rotation with a coupling ratio of 3 ATPs/turn, the same as wild-type, suggesting that cooperative torque generation by the 3 β subunits was not impaired. The hybrid F1 carrying a single copy of the α mutant revealed that the reaction step slowed by the mutation occurs at +200° from the binding angle of the mutant subunit. Thus, the principal role of the arginine finger is not to mediate cooperativity among the catalytic sites, but to enhance the rate of the ATP cleavage by stabilizing the transition state of ATP hydrolysis. Lysine substitution also caused frequent pauses because of severe ADP inhibition, and a slight decrease in ATP-binding rate.

Single-molecule Analysis of Inhibitory Pausing States of V1-ATPase

Background: Biochemical studies indicate the presence of an ADP-inhibited state in V1-ATPase. Results: Single-molecule analysis showed two types of pauses during rotation, a second-scale pause and the other an irreversible long pause. Conclusion: Long pause corresponds to the ADP-inhibited state of V1-ATPase. Significance: This is the first time to show that V1-ATPase has a second-scale pause and also that an ADP-inhibited V1-ATPase could resume active rotation under external manipulation. V1-ATPase, the hydrophilic V-ATPase domain, is a rotary motor fueled by ATP hydrolysis. Here, we found that Thermus thermophilus V1-ATPase shows two types of inhibitory pauses interrupting continuous rotation: a short pause (SP, 4.2 s) that occurred frequently during rotation, and a long inhibitory pause (LP, >30 min) that terminated all active rotations. Both pauses occurred at the same angle for ATP binding and hydrolysis. Kinetic analysis revealed that the time constants of inactivation into and activation from the SP were too short to represent biochemically predicted ADP inhibition, suggesting that SP is a newly identified inhibitory state of V1-ATPase. The time constant of inactivation into LP was 17 min, consistent with one of the two time constants governing the inactivation process observed in bulk ATPase assay. When forcibly rotated in the forward direction, V1 in LP resumed active rotation. Solution ADP suppressed the probability of mechanical activation, suggesting that mechanical rotation enhanced inhibitory ADP release. These features were highly consistent with mechanical activation of ADP-inhibited F1, suggesting that LP represents the ADP-inhibited state of V1-ATPase. Mechanical activation largely depended on the direction and angular displacement of forced rotation, implying that V1-ATPase rotation modulates the off rate of ADP.

Mechanochemistry of F1motor protein

Although a variety of physical perturbations are utilised to control chemical reactions or bias chemical equilibria, mechanical force is not generally an option for controlling chemical reactions due to technical complexity. However, upon attaching handles to a responsive moiety and pulling, twisting or pushing it, unique means of controlling chemistry are permitted because mechanical force is intrinsically anisotropic for chemical structures. One remarkable example in natural systems is F1-ATPase, the water-soluble part of FoF1-ATP synthase. F1-ATPase is a rotary motor protein in which the rotor subunit rotates against the surrounding catalytic stator ring, hydrolysing ATP. A unique feature of F1-ATPase is that it synthesises ATP against the large chemical potential of ATP hydrolysis when its rotation is mechanically reversed. This mini-review will introduce the latest findings about the mechanochemical properties of F1-ATPase, and summarise the common concepts of mechanochemistry it shares with synthetic molecular systems.

Single-Molecule Analysis of the Rotation of F1-ATPase under High Hydrostatic Pressure

F1-ATPase is the water-soluble part of ATP synthase and is an ATP-driven rotary molecular motor that rotates the rotary shaft against the surrounding stator ring, hydrolyzing ATP. Although the mechanochemical coupling mechanism of F1-ATPase has been well studied, the molecular details of individual reaction steps remain unclear. In this study, we conducted a single-molecule rotation assay of F1 from thermophilic bacteria under various pressures from 0.1 to 140 MPa. Even at 140 MPa, F1 actively rotated with regular 120° steps in a counterclockwise direction, showing high conformational stability and retention of native properties. Rotational torque was also not affected. However, high hydrostatic pressure induced a distinct intervening pause at the ATP-binding angles during continuous rotation. The pause was observed under both ATP-limiting and ATP-saturating conditions, suggesting that F1 has two pressure-sensitive reactions, one of which is evidently ATP binding. The rotation assay using a mutant F1(βE190D) suggested that the other pressure-sensitive reaction occurs at the same angle at which ATP binding occurs. The activation volumes were determined from the pressure dependence of the rate constants to be +100 Å(3) and +88 Å(3) for ATP binding and the other pressure-sensitive reaction, respectively. These results are discussed in relation to recent single-molecule studies of F1 and pressure-induced protein unfolding.

Mechanical modulation of ATP-binding affinity of V1-ATPase.

Background: The ATP-binding reaction was hypothesized to be the main torque-generating step for V1-ATPase. Results: Upon mechanical manipulation, the ATP-binding reaction of V1-ATPase showed weaker angle dependence than that of F1-ATPase. Conclusion: The ATP-binding reaction is not the main torque-generating step in V1. Significance: This external manipulation technique should be applied to other reaction steps of ATP hydrolysis to get the whole view of the mechanochemical coupling mechanism in V1. V1-ATPase is a rotary motor protein that rotates the central shaft in a counterclockwise direction hydrolyzing ATP. Although the ATP-binding process is suggested to be the most critical reaction step for torque generation in F1-ATPase (the closest relative of V1-ATPase evolutionarily), the role of ATP binding for V1-ATPase in torque generation has remained unclear. In the present study, we performed single-molecule manipulation experiments on V1-ATPase from Thermus thermophilus to investigate how the ATP-binding process is modulated upon rotation of the rotary shaft. When V1-ATPase showed an ATP-waiting pause, it was stalled at a target angle and then released. Based on the response of the V1-ATPase released, the ATP-binding probability was determined at individual stall angles. It was observed that the rate constant of ATP binding (kon) was exponentially accelerated with forward rotation, whereas the rate constant of ATP release (koff) was exponentially reduced. The angle dependence of the koff of V1-ATPase was significantly smaller than that of F1-ATPase, suggesting that the ATP-binding process is not the major torque-generating step in V1-ATPase. When V1-ATPase was stalled at the mean binding angle to restrict rotary Brownian motion, kon was evidently slower than that determined from free rotation, showing the reaction rate enhancement by conformational fluctuation. It was also suggested that shaft of V1-ATPase should be rotated at least 277° in a clockwise direction for efficient release of ATP under ATP-synthesis conditions.

A single amino acid gates the KcsA channel.

The KcsA channel is a proton-activated potassium channel. We have previously shown that the cytoplasmic domain (CPD) acts as a pH-sensor, and the charged states of certain negatively charged amino acids in the CPD play an important role in regulating the pH-dependent gating. Here, we demonstrate the KcsA channel is constitutively open independent of pH upon mutating E146 to a neutrally charged amino acid. In addition, we found that rearrangement of the CPD following this mutation was not large. Our results indicate that minimal rearrangement of the CPD, particularly around E146, is sufficient for opening of the KcsA channel.

Gold functionalized nano-needles for angular protein movement visualization

We have investigated and compared various methods of fabricating silicon nano-needles of 100–200 nm in diameter and 1–2 µm in length for visualization of motor protein movement. Owing to their thin and long geometry, the needles are ideal to amplify and visualize angular movement. To enable highly localized protein attachment, a well-defined attachment point at one end of the needles was prepared. Fabrication by electron-beam lithography as well as by a highly parallel non-lithographic process were implemented and compared. Sensitive angular motion amplification was demonstrated by attachment of needles to F1 ATPase rotation motor proteins. In this report we characterize the fabrication processes, discuss the differences, and present the results of motor protein motion visualization.