Daniel G. Mullen

Structure and topology of monomeric phospholamban in lipid membranes determined by a hybrid solution and solid-state NMR approach.

Phospholamban (PLN) is an essential regulator of cardiac muscle contractility. The homopentameric assembly of PLN is the reservoir for active monomers that, upon deoligomerization form 1:1 complexes with the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA), thus modulating the rate of calcium uptake. In lipid bilayers and micelles, monomeric PLN exists in equilibrium between a bent (or resting) T state and a more dynamic (or active) R state. Here, we report the high-resolution structure and topology of the T state of a monomeric PLN mutant in lipid bilayers, using a hybrid of solution and solid-state NMR restraints together with molecular dynamics simulations in explicit lipid environments. Unlike the previous structural ensemble determined in micelles, this approach gives a complete picture of the PLN monomer structure in a lipid bilayer. This hybrid ensemble exemplifies the tilt, rotation, and depth of membrane insertion, revealing the interaction with the lipids for all protein domains. The N-terminal amphipathic helical domain Ia (residues 1–16) rests on the surface of the lipid membrane with the hydrophobic face of domain Ia embedded in the membrane bilayer interior. The helix comprised of domain Ib (residues 23–30) and transmembrane domain II (residues 31–52) traverses the bilayer with a tilt angle of ≈24°. The specific interactions between PLN and lipid membranes may represent an additional regulatory element of its inhibitory function. We propose this hybrid method for the simultaneous determination of structure and topology for membrane proteins with compact folds or proteins whose spatial arrangement is dictated by their specific interactions with lipid bilayers.

Allosteric regulation of SERCA by phosphorylation-mediated conformational shift of phospholamban

Significance The sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA)/phospholamban complex regulates cardiac muscle contractility by controlling Ca2+ transport from the cytosol to the lumen of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. By mapping the interactions between these two membrane proteins, we found that SERCA function depends on the equilibria between transient conformational states of phospholamban. Phosphorylation of phospholamban shifts the equilibria, enhancing SERCA function. This mechanism explains why tuning phospholamban’s structural dynamics can modulate SERCA function and may aid in designing innovative therapeutic approaches to heart failure. The membrane protein complex between the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) and phospholamban (PLN) controls Ca2+ transport in cardiomyocytes, thereby modulating cardiac contractility. β-Adrenergic-stimulated phosphorylation of PLN at Ser-16 enhances SERCA activity via an unknown mechanism. Using solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, we mapped the physical interactions between SERCA and both unphosphorylated and phosphorylated PLN in membrane bilayers. We found that the allosteric regulation of SERCA depends on the conformational equilibrium of PLN, whose cytoplasmic regulatory domain interconverts between three different states: a ground T state (helical and membrane associated), an excited R state (unfolded and membrane detached), and a B state (extended and enzyme-bound), which is noninhibitory. Phosphorylation at Ser-16 of PLN shifts the populations toward the B state, increasing SERCA activity. We conclude that PLN’s conformational equilibrium is central to maintain SERCA’s apparent Ca2+ affinity within a physiological window. This model represents a paradigm shift in our understanding of SERCA regulation by posttranslational phosphorylation and suggests strategies for designing innovative therapeutic approaches to enhance cardiac muscle contractility.

A new fluoridolysable anchoring linkage for orthogonal solid-phase peptide synthesis: Preparation and properties of the N-(3 or 4)-[[[(4-hydroxymethyl)-phenoxy-t-butylphenyl]silyl]phenyl]pentanedioic acid, monoamide (PBS) handle☆☆☆

Abstract The synthesis and characterization of a new silicon-containing handle for use in solid-phase peptide synthesis is described. The anchoring linkage derived from this new handle, when treated with fluoride (1.0 equiv.) for 5 min at 25 °C, releases peptides as their free acids in essentially quantitative yields and without racemization.

A Myristoyl/Phosphoserine Switch Controls cAMP-Dependent Protein Kinase Association to Membranes

The cAMP-dependent protein kinase [protein kinase A (PKA)] mediates a myriad of cellular signaling events, and its activity is tightly regulated in both space and time. Among these regulatory mechanisms is N-myristoylation, whose biological role has been elusive. Using a combination of thermodynamics, kinetics, and spectroscopic methods, we analyzed the effects of N-myristoylation and phosphorylation at Ser10 on the interactions of PKA with model membranes. We found that, in the absence of lipids, the myristoyl group is tucked into the hydrophobic binding pocket of the enzyme (myr-in state). Upon association with lipid bilayers, the myristoyl group is extruded and inserts into the hydrocarbon region of the lipid bilayer (myr-out state). NMR data indicate that the enzyme undergoes conformational equilibrium between myr-in and myr-out states, which can be shifted byeither interaction with membranes and/or phosphorylation at Ser10. Our results provide evidence that the membrane binding motif of the myristoylated C-subunit of PKA (PKA-C) steers the enzyme toward lipids independent of its regulatory subunit or an A-kinase anchoring protein, providing an additional mechanism to localize the enzyme near membrane-bound substrates.

Probing membrane permeabilization by the antimicrobial peptide distinctin in mercury-supported biomimetic membranes

The mechanism of membrane permeabilization by the antimicrobial peptide distinctin was investigated by using two different mercury-supported biomimetic membranes, namely a lipid self-assembled monolayer and a lipid bilayer tethered to the mercury surface through a hydrophilic spacer (tethered bilayer lipid membrane: tBLM). Incorporation of distinctin into a lipid monolayer from its aqueous solution yields rapidly ion channels selective toward inorganic cations, such as Tl(+) and Cd(2+). Conversely, its incorporation in a tBLM allows the formation of ion channels permeable to potassium ions only at non-physiological transmembrane potentials, more negative than -340mV. These channels, once formed, are unstable at less negative transmembrane potentials. The kinetics of their formation is consistent with the disruption of distinctin clusters adsorbed on top of the lipid bilayer, incorporation of the resulting monomers and their aggregation into hydrophilic pores by a mechanism of nucleation and growth. Comparing the behavior of distinctin in tBLMs with that in conventional black lipid membranes strongly suggests that distinctin channel formation in lipid bilayer requires the partitioning of distinctin molecules between the two sides of the lipid bilayer. We can tentatively hypothesize that an ion channel is formed when one distinctin cluster on one side of the lipid bilayer matches another one on the opposite side.

Caged Protein Prenyltransferase Substrates: Tools for Understanding Protein Prenylation

Originally designed to block the prenylation of oncogenic Ras, inhibitors of protein farnesyltransferase currently in preclinical and clinical trials are showing efficacy in cancers with normal Ras. Blocking protein prenylation has also shown promise in the treatment of malaria, Chagas disease and progeria syndrome. A better understanding of the mechanism, targets and in vivo consequences of protein prenylation are needed to elucidate the mode of action of current PFTase (Protein Farnesyltransferase) inhibitors and to create more potent and selective compounds. Caged enzyme substrates are useful tools for understanding enzyme mechanism and biological function. Reported here is the synthesis and characterization of caged substrates of PFTase. The caged isoprenoid diphosphates are poor substrates prior to photolysis. The caged CAAX peptide is a true catalytically caged substrate of PFTase in that it is to not a substrate, yet is able to bind to the enzyme as established by inhibition studies and X‐ray crystallography. Irradiation of the caged molecules with 350 nm light readily releases their cognate substrate and their photolysis products are benign. These properties highlight the utility of those analogs towards a variety of in vitro and in vivo applications.

Synthesis of peptides containing C-terminal methyl esters using trityl side-chain anchoring: application to the synthesis of a-factor and a-factor analogs.

A new cysteine anchoring method was developed for the synthesis of peptides containing C-terminal cysteine methyl esters. This method consists of attachment of Fmoc-Cys-OCH(3) to either 2-ClTrt-Cl or Trt-Cl resins (via the side-chain thiol) followed by preparation of the desired peptide using Fmoc-based SPPS. We applied this method to the synthesis of the mating pheromone a-factor and a 5-FAM labeled a-factor analog. The peptides were obtained with high yield and purity and were shown to be bioactive in a growth arrest assay.

Evaluation of a cell penetrating prenylated peptide lacking an intrinsic fluorophore via in situ click reaction.

Protein prenylation involves the addition of either a farnesyl (C(15)) or geranylgeranyl (C(20)) isoprenoid moiety onto the C-terminus of many proteins. This natural modification serves to direct a protein to the plasma membrane of the cell. A recently discovered application of prenylated peptides is that they have inherent cell-penetrating ability, and are hence termed cell penetrating prenylated peptides. These peptides are able to efficiently cross the cell membrane in an ATP independent, non-endocytotic manner and it was found that the sequence of the peptide does not affect uptake, so long as the geranylgeranyl group is still present [Wollack, J. W.; Zeliadt, N. A.; Mullen, D. G.; Amundson, G.; Geier, S.; Falkum, S.; Wattenberg, E. V.; Barany, G.; Distefano, M. D. Multifunctional Prenylated Peptides for Live Cell Analysis. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2009, 131, 7293-7303]. The present study investigates the effect of removing the fluorophore from the peptides and investigating the uptake by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. Our results show that the fluorophore is not necessary for uptake of these peptides. This information is significant because it indicates that the prenyl group is the major determinant in allowing these peptides to enter cells; the hydrophobic fluorophore has little effect. Moreover, these studies demonstrate the utility of the Cu-catalyzed click reaction for monitoring the entry of nonfluorescent peptides into cells.

Synthesis of a-factor peptide from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and photoactive analogues via Fmoc solid phase methodology.

a-Factor from Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a farnesylated dodecapeptide involved in mating. The molecule binds to a G-protein coupled receptor and hence serves as a simple system for studying the interactions between prenylated molecules and their cognate receptors. Here, we describe the preparation of a-factor and two photoactive analogues via Fmoc solid-phase peptide synthesis using hydrazinobenzoyl AM NovaGel™ resin; the structure of the synthetic a-factor was confirmed by MS-MS analysis and NMR; the structures of the analogues were confirmed by MS-MS analysis. Using a yeast growth arrest assay, the analogues were found to have activity comparable to a-factor itself.

Investigation of the sequence and length dependence for cell-penetrating prenylated peptides.

Cell penetrating peptides are useful delivery tools for introducing molecules of interest into cells. A new class of cell penetrating molecules has been recently reported-cell penetrating, prenylated peptides. In this study a series of such peptides was synthesized to examine the relationship between peptide sequence and level of peptide internalization and to probe their mechanism of internalization. This study revealed that prenylated peptides internalize via a non-endocytotic pathway regardless of sequence. Sequence length and identity was found to play a role in peptide uptake but prenylated sequences as short as two amino acids were found to exhibit significant cell penetrating properties.