Daniel P. Connaughton

The influence of consumer's event quality perception on destination image

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to examine the theoretical relationship between event quality perceptions of an international sport event and the host citys destination image.Design/methodology/approach – Reliability and validity of the measurement scale were established through a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), Cronbachs alpha analyses, and intercorrelation analyses. A structural equation model (SEM) test with maximum likelihood estimation was performed to test the relationship among the research variables using 451 participants.Findings – The results suggest that event quality perceptions, particularly intangible factors, positively influence the destination image. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.Originality/value – To date, there have been few empirical studies examining the relationship between international sport event quality and destination image. Consequently, understanding the role of event quality of an international sport event and the destination image in a to...

General Market Demand Variables Associated with Professional Sport Consumption

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between general market demands and consumption levels of professional sport consumers. This study was accomplished through: (a) validating the theoretical constructs of general market demand variables by conducting a confirmatory factor analysis; (b) examining the predictability of general market demand factors to consumption levels of live and televised sporting events; and (c) investigating the relationships between sociodemographic and general market demand factors. Five hundred and twenty-five residents of a major southern US city were interviewed using a questionnaire that included eight sociodemographic variables, 12 market demand variables under three factors (Game Attractiveness, Economic Consideration, and Marketing Promotion), and 10 professional sporting event consumption variables. The factor structure of the general market demand variables was confirmed. Regression analyses revealed that market demand factors were positively (p Keywords: Market demands, game consumption, professional sports Introduction Professional sport teams have two primary product markets, ticket sales and broadcasting rights, which account for over 80 per cent of team revenue. Teams also have secondary revenue producers such as parking, concessions, programs, endorsements, uses of team logos, and media productions (Leonard, 1997; Noll, 1991). The relationship between live and televised events is reciprocal. Each has influenced and depended on the other for its popularity and commercial success (Jhally, 1989; Whannel, 1992). Spectator attraction and retention at both live and televised events are very critical to the financial success of teams. Nevertheless, spectator retention is the most common problem facing the sport industry (Sawyer & Smith, 1999). Sport games are the core product function of professional sport teams. In recent years, there has been an increased interest in studying consumer demands of the core products. Researchers (Greenstein & Marcum, 1981; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Schofield, 1983; Zhang, Pease, Hui & Michaud, 1995) have generally grouped variables affecting spectator game consumption into the following categories: game attractiveness (e.g. athlete skills, team records, league standing, record-breaking performance, closeness of competition, team history in a community, schedule, convenience, and stadium quality); marketing promotions (e.g. publicity, special events, entertainment programs, and giveaways); and economic considerations (e.g. ticket price, substitute forms of entertainment, income, and competition of other sport events). The majority of previous studies have focused on game attractiveness variables, while the other two areas have been studied to a lesser extent (e.g. Baade & Tiehen, 1990; Marcum & Greenstein, 1985; Noll, 1974,1991; Whitney, 1988; Zak, Huang & Siegfried, 1979). Game attractiveness and marketing promotion variables have generally been found to be positively related to game consumption (Baade & Tiehen, 1990; Becker & Suls, 1983; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Jones, 1984; Marcum & Greenstein, 1985; Noll, 1991; Whitney, 1988; Zhang et al., 1995). For economic variables, income and ticket discounts have consistently been shown to be positively related to game consumption, while ticket price, substitute forms of entertainment, and competition from other sport events have generally been shown to be negatively related to game consumption (Baade & Tiehen, 1990; Bird, 1982; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Noll, 1974; Siegfried & Eisenberg, 1980; Zhang & Smith, 1997; Zhang, Smith, Pease & Jambor, 1997). …

Validation of a Stages of Exercise Change Questionnaire

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine evidence for the validity of a stages of change measure of the Transtheoretical Model for exercise behavior. Participants were 152 university students (53.3% women, 71.6% Caucasian, M age = 19.18 years) who completed processes of change, self-efficacy, decisional balance, stages of change, and exercise behavior questionnaires as well as a maximal treadmill test. Participants in the action and maintenance stages had the highest strenuous (PC/C/P < A/M) and moderate (PC/C < A/M) self-reported exercise behavior. Those in the maintenance stage had the highest estimated aerobic fitness (PC/P < M). The differences between the early stages (PC, C, and P) and the later stages (A and M) as described by the first function were primarily due to the behavioral process of change. The differences between the extreme stages (PC and M) and the middle stages (C, P, and A) were due to the experiential processes of change and the pros of decisional balance. The hypothesized patterns ofstage differences were partially supported. Failure to obtain full support may have been due to methodological issues or inherent difficulties in detecting evidence for the validity of stages of change measures.

Body image in middle school children

The study purpose was to examine the relationship between sex, age, body mass index (BMI), and fitness level on the body image of 388 middle school children. Participants completed affective (social physique anxiety) and subjective evaluation (body dissatisfaction) body image measures and the 1-mile run/walk as an objective fitness measure. It was found that: (a) the females reported more social physique anxiety and body dissatisfaction than the males; (b) body dissatisfaction, especially for the females, was prevalent; (c) BMI was positively related to the body image measures; (d) for the males only, age was negatively related to the body image measures; (e) body dissatisfaction was negatively related to fitness levels; and (f) after controlling for BMI (and age for the males), fitness level was not a significant predictor of body dissatisfaction. The results indicate that body dissatisfaction was prevalent and early interventions with youth may be required.

Comparison of Volunteer Motivations in Different Youth Sport Organizations

Abstract Volunteers are a crucial component of the work force in the sport industry, particularly in youth sports. Understanding the factors that cause and sustain sport volunteerism would assist sport organizations in recruiting and retaining volunteers. The purpose of the current study was to compare motivation among volunteers at different youth sport organizations/events. Research participants (n=1,099) were four groups of volunteers working at international, national, local and special-needs youth sport organizations/events, who responded to the Modified Volunteer Functions Inventory for Sports (MVFIS) with six factors: Values, Understanding, Social, Career, Enhancement and Protective. A factorial (2×4) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed that the mean vector MVFIS factor scores were significantly different among the various organization types and between genders. Follow-up analyses revealed that volunteers working at the international and special-needs sport events displayed higher motivations in all six factor areas than volunteers at the national and local organizations. Female volunteers were higher in Values and Understanding factors.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Spectator Decision-Making Inventory (SDMI)

The purpose of this study was to re-examine the factor structure of the Spectator Decision-Making Inventory through a confirmatory factor analysis. The inventory was developed by Zhang, Pease, Hui, and Michaud (1995), to measure factors affecting the attendance of mens professional basketball games, and consists of 15 items under 4 factors: Game Promotion, Home Team, Opposing Team, and Schedule Convenience. Spectators (N = 685), from 5 regular season home games of a National Basketball Association team, responded to the inventory. Procedures in the Windows LISREL 8.12 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993a) computer program were utilized. The maximum likelihood estimation was adopted. With some minor respecifications by removing 2 items, the model provided a good fit to the data (e.g., RMSEA = .10, SRMR = .056, GFI = .90, CFI = .91), supporting a 4-factor structure. Researchers and practitioners may utilize the inventory to conduct in-arena or mail-out surveys.

Perceptions of Exercise Stages, Barrier Self-Efficacy, and Decisional Balance for Middle-Level School Students

It is important to examine theoretically the determinants of exercise for middle school children because of the rapid decline in exercise during adolescence. The purpose for this study was to examine the validity of the Stages of Change (SOC) construct of the Transtheoretical Model with 387 middle school children. The students completed an SOC, barrier self-efficacy, and decisional balance questionnaire, as well as objective and self-report measures of exercise behavior/fitness level. Classification by SOC revealed that 236 children were in the maintenance stage, 108 in the action stage, 25 in the preparation stage, and 18 in the contemplation/precontemplation stage. Barrier self-efficacy, 1-mile run/walk, curl-up, and push-up scores improved at each level from the precontemplation through to the maintenance stage. There were no significant differences in decisional balance scores across the SOC. This study provided preliminary cognitive and behavioral support for the use of the SOC construct with middle school children.

A mediating role of destination image in the relationship between event quality, perceived value, and behavioral intention

The purpose of this study was to examine the theoretical relationship between service quality in a sport event, perceived value (PV), destination image, and behavioral intention (BI). This study surveyed 451 spectators who attended the Tour de Korea, an international road bicycling stage race. A series of a structural equation model tests were performed to examine the relationships among the variables. The mediating effect of the destination image was also examined. The results suggest that service quality positively influenced PV, destination image, and BI; PV positively influenced the destination image, but negatively influenced BI; and the destination image plays an important mediating role in the relationship between service quality and BI and the relationship between PV and destination image. To date, only a few empirical studies have examined the theoretical relationship between destination image, service quality, and PV. Particularly, the potential mediating role of the destination image in this relationship has not been systematically examined. As such, these results will make both scientific and practical contributions.

Liability concerns and shared use of school recreational facilities in underserved communities

BACKGROUND In underserved communities, schools can provide the physical structure and facilities for informal and formal recreation as well as after-school, weekend, and summer programming. The importance of community access to schools is acknowledged by authoritative groups; however, fear of liability is believed to be a key barrier to community access. PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to investigate perceptions of liability risk and associated issues among school administrators in underserved communities. METHODS A national survey of school administrators in underserved communities (n=360, response rate of 21%) was conducted in 2009 and analyzed in 2010. Liability perceptions in the context of community access were assessed through descriptive statistics. RESULTS The majority of respondents (82.2%) indicated concern for liability should someone be injured on school property after hours while participating in a recreational activity. Among those that did not allow community access, 91% were somewhat to very concerned about liability and 86% believed that stronger legislation was needed to better protect schools from liability for after-hours recreational use. Among those who claimed familiarity with a state law that offered them limited liability protection, nearly three fourths were nevertheless concerned about liability. CONCLUSIONS Liability concerns are prevalent among this group of school administrators, particularly if they had been involved in prior litigation, and even if they indicated they were aware of laws that provide liability protection where use occurs after hours. Reducing these concerns will be important if schools are to become locations for recreational programs that promote physical activity outside of regular school hours.

Policies to Promote the Community Use of Schools: A Review of State Recreational User Statutes

CONTEXT Concern over liability is a barrier to allowing community use of school property for the purpose of engaging in active sport and recreational activities. Recreational user statutes have the potential to limit liability for public schools when use occurs outside of regular school hours, reduce the fear of liability among school administrators, and increase opportunities for access to school facilities for recreation and physical activity by community members. The purpose of this study was to examine the applicability of recreational user statutes to public schools when the use of school facilities for recreational purposes would occur outside of regular school hours. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION A review of recreational user statutes from all 50 states was conducted in 2007 and 2009. Characteristics of those statutes from states with laws potentially applicable to public school recreation and sport facilities were described in detail. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Forty-two states had recreational user statutes that would potentially offer protection from liability for public schools. Protected activities listed in state statutes were summer sports (n=2); winter sports (n=22); athletic competition (n=1); sporting events and activities (n=1); exercise (n=4); and any other outdoor sport, game, or recreational activity (n=2). Specific protected physical activities listed were playing on playground equipment (n=1); running/jogging (n=2); roller-skating and rollerblading (n=4); skateboarding (n=2); disc golf (n=1); and bicycling (n=16). CONCLUSIONS This study suggests the need for further statutory liability protections for public schools, and immunity provisions that target activities conducive to physical activity, common on school grounds, and popular among community residents. It further suggests that empirical studies be conducted to examine school administrators perceptions relevant to liability as a potential barrier to opening school sport and recreational facilities to members of the community outside of regular school hours.