John O. Spengler

Park-based physical activity in diverse communities of two U.S. cities. An observational study.

BACKGROUND Systematic study of human behavior in public parks and specific activity settings can inform policy to promote physical activity in diverse communities. METHODS Direct observation was used to assess physical activity in public parks in Tampa FL (n=10) and Chicago IL (n=18). Parks were selected from census tracts with high concentrations of white, African-American, and Hispanic populations. Representation from low- and high-income census tracts was also achieved. Physical activity was measured by a modified version of the System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity in Youth (SOPLAY). Activity codes from SOPLAY were transformed to energy expenditure per person (kcal/kg/min). RESULTS Seventy percent of Tampa and 51% of Chicago park users were observed engaged in sedentary behavior. In both cities, children were more likely than adults to be observed in walking or vigorous activity. In Tampa, parks located in neighborhoods with the highest concentration of Hispanic residents were associated with greatest levels of energy expenditure. In Chicago, parks in neighborhoods with the highest concentration of African Americans showed the highest energy expenditure per person. Gender was associated with physical activity only in Tampa parks. Energy expenditure also varied by activity areas. CONCLUSIONS More than one half of park users in both cities engaged in sedentary behavior. While differences in park-based physical activity by neighborhood income and racial/ethnic composition were observed, these differences can more likely be attributed to the types of designated activity areas that support physical activity. The study findings suggest that specific configurations of park environments can enhance physical activity in parks.

Environmental and Social Correlates of Physical Activity in Neighborhood Parks: An Observational Study in Tampa and Chicago

This study used observational methods to examine physical activity (PA) and selected correlates in 28 parks in Tampa, Florida, and Chicago, Illinois. We observed 9,454 park users within predetermined activity zones and coded their activity as sedentary, walking (i.e., moderate intensity), or vigorous PA. In Tampa, higher temperature, unorganized activity, lower amounts of shade, lower neighborhood income, Hispanic neighborhood ethnicity, male gender and child age group were significantly associated with walking. Vigorous activity was not associated with income and ethnicity. Morning hours, unorganized activity, lower neighborhood income and African American neighborhood ethnicity were associated with walking in Chicago. Vigorous activity was associated with children, lower neighborhood income and African American ethnicity. Findings from this study can inform policy decisions and future research directions.

Schools as a Community Resource for Physical Activity: Legal Considerations for Decision Makers

Public schools may offer community residents access to gymnasiums, playfields, etc. When school facilities are available and/or opened up for public use in this manner, what are the legal obligations and liability concerns that arise for the schools and the users? Joint- and shared-use facilities and lands have some legal protections, which this paper introduces and reviews. Legal cases (and precedent) are shared with readers. Within this context, a model depicting factors influencing decisions to allow public use of school facilities for recreation and physical activity is introduced.

Liability concerns and shared use of school recreational facilities in underserved communities

BACKGROUND In underserved communities, schools can provide the physical structure and facilities for informal and formal recreation as well as after-school, weekend, and summer programming. The importance of community access to schools is acknowledged by authoritative groups; however, fear of liability is believed to be a key barrier to community access. PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to investigate perceptions of liability risk and associated issues among school administrators in underserved communities. METHODS A national survey of school administrators in underserved communities (n=360, response rate of 21%) was conducted in 2009 and analyzed in 2010. Liability perceptions in the context of community access were assessed through descriptive statistics. RESULTS The majority of respondents (82.2%) indicated concern for liability should someone be injured on school property after hours while participating in a recreational activity. Among those that did not allow community access, 91% were somewhat to very concerned about liability and 86% believed that stronger legislation was needed to better protect schools from liability for after-hours recreational use. Among those who claimed familiarity with a state law that offered them limited liability protection, nearly three fourths were nevertheless concerned about liability. CONCLUSIONS Liability concerns are prevalent among this group of school administrators, particularly if they had been involved in prior litigation, and even if they indicated they were aware of laws that provide liability protection where use occurs after hours. Reducing these concerns will be important if schools are to become locations for recreational programs that promote physical activity outside of regular school hours.

Policies to Promote the Community Use of Schools: A Review of State Recreational User Statutes

CONTEXT Concern over liability is a barrier to allowing community use of school property for the purpose of engaging in active sport and recreational activities. Recreational user statutes have the potential to limit liability for public schools when use occurs outside of regular school hours, reduce the fear of liability among school administrators, and increase opportunities for access to school facilities for recreation and physical activity by community members. The purpose of this study was to examine the applicability of recreational user statutes to public schools when the use of school facilities for recreational purposes would occur outside of regular school hours. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION A review of recreational user statutes from all 50 states was conducted in 2007 and 2009. Characteristics of those statutes from states with laws potentially applicable to public school recreation and sport facilities were described in detail. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Forty-two states had recreational user statutes that would potentially offer protection from liability for public schools. Protected activities listed in state statutes were summer sports (n=2); winter sports (n=22); athletic competition (n=1); sporting events and activities (n=1); exercise (n=4); and any other outdoor sport, game, or recreational activity (n=2). Specific protected physical activities listed were playing on playground equipment (n=1); running/jogging (n=2); roller-skating and rollerblading (n=4); skateboarding (n=2); disc golf (n=1); and bicycling (n=16). CONCLUSIONS This study suggests the need for further statutory liability protections for public schools, and immunity provisions that target activities conducive to physical activity, common on school grounds, and popular among community residents. It further suggests that empirical studies be conducted to examine school administrators perceptions relevant to liability as a potential barrier to opening school sport and recreational facilities to members of the community outside of regular school hours.

Scale Development: Perceived Barriers to Public Use of School Recreational Facilities.

OBJECTIVES To test an original scale assessing perceived barriers among school administrators to allowing community use of school recreational facilities outside of regular school hours. METHODS Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). RESULTS Using EFA and CFA, we found that a model including factors of legal/security, resources, and social support demonstrated the best relative fit for our data. CONCLUSIONS The Perceived Barriers to Community Use (PBCU) Scale is psychometrically sound and provides a framework to guide the design of future research and discussion of perceived barriers that school administrators have about opening their school recreational facilities outside of regular school hours.

Promoting Physical Activity Through the Shared Use of School Recreational Spaces: A Policy Statement From the American Heart Association

Most Americans are not sufficiently physically active, even though regular physical activity improves health and reduces the risk of many chronic diseases. Those living in rural, non-White, and lower-income communities often have insufficient access to places to be active, which can contribute to their lower level of physical activity. The shared use of school recreational facilities can provide safe and affordable places for communities. Studies suggest that challenges to shared use include additional cost, liability protection, communication among constituencies interested in sharing space, and decision-making about scheduling and space allocation. This American Heart Association policy statement has provided recommendations for federal, state, and local decision-makers to support and expand opportunities for physical activity in communities through the shared use of school spaces.

Energy Expenditure Associated With the Use of Neighborhood Parks in 2 Cities

CONTEXT Availability of public neighborhood parks is associated with physical activity. Little is known about how parks contribute to population energy balance. PURPOSE This study estimated energy expenditure associated with the use of neighborhood parks and compared energy expenditure by activity areas within parks and by neighborhood race/ethnicity and income. DESIGN The System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity among Youth (SOPLAY), a direct observation approach, was used to estimate energy expenditure in 10 Tampa (Florida) parks and 19 Chicago (Illinois) parks. SETTING Parks were selected from census tracts with a moderate to high representation of white, Latino, and African American populations. PARTICIPANTS A total of 9454 park users were observed. OUTCOME Sedentary, moderate, and vigorous activities were assigned metabolic equivalence intensity (MET) values of 1.5, 3, and 6, respectively. RESULTS Park use in Tampa generated 15 336 total METs over the study period. Chicago parks generated 7305.6 METs. Mean METs varied by activity areas in parks. For Chicago parks, mean METs were higher for parks in African American and higher-income neighborhoods. CONCLUSIONS Public parks can contribute to population energy balance. Policies to make parks available, promotions to encourage park use, and programs to encourage active use of parks are necessary to achieve this potential.

Case Law Analysis Regarding High School and Collegiate Liability for Hazing

Abstract Hazing has long been a part of group initiation practices within schools, fraternal organizations and sport teams. Recent increases in reported incidents demonstrate that hazing is both prevalent and dangerous within high schools, colleges and universities world-wide. Sport has historically been used to foster a multitude of positive benefits, including teamwork, fair play and physical fitness. Unfortunately, hazing within sport is commonplace and represents a substantial source of liability. The purpose of this study was to conduct a content analysis of US published case law involving liability for hazing at the high school and collegiate levels in order to develop recommendations for educators and sport managers aimed at reducing hazing and limiting liability.

Integrating Research, Legal Technical Assistance, and Advocacy to Inform Shared Use Legislation in Mississippi

Purpose. The purpose of this article was to describe the process by which research findings informed the successful passage of legislation designed to increase opportunities for physical activity in Mississippi, and discuss implications and lessons learned from this process. Design and Setting. The article is descriptive and conceptual, and addresses the collaborative process by which research, legal technical assistance, and advocacy informed and shaped shared use legislation in Mississippi. Subjects. Collaborators informing this article were an Active Living Research grantee, a staff attorney with the Public Health Law Center, the American Heart Association Mississippi Government Relations Director, and community partners. Results. The American Heart Association and Public Health Law Center developed policy guidance in the form of sample language for legislation as a starting point for states in determining policy needed to eliminate or reduce barriers to the shared use of school recreational facilities. The policy guidance was informed by evidence from Active Living Research–funded research studies. The American Heart Association, supporting a bill shaped by the policy guidance, led the effort to advocate for successful shared use legislation in Mississippi. Conclusion. Research should be policy relevant and properly translated and disseminated. Legal technical assistance should involve collaboration with both researchers and advocates so that policymakers have the information to make evidence-based decisions. Government relations directors should collaborate with legal technical staff to obtain and understand policy guidance relevant to their advocacy efforts. Effective collaborations, with an evidence-based approach, can lead to informed, successful policy change.