James J. Zhang

Physical activity among ethnically diverse college students

Abstract The authors compared physical activity patterns among 874 Asian, 332 African, 1,101 White, and 529 Hispanic American college students aged 18 to 25 years. According to self-report responses, 46.7% of the sample did not engage in vigorous physical activity and 16.7% were physically inactive. Among women, ethnic-specific rates of physical inactivity were Asian, 28.1%; African, 23.5%; White, 17.4%; and Hispanic, 20.3%. For men, rates of inactivity were Asian 11.7%; African, 7.7%; White, 12.0%; and Hispanic, 13.8. Weight-training activity, youthful physical activity, and TV viewing accounted for a significant portion of the variance in physical activity levels (13.1% for women and 14.8% for men). The results of this study support the need for physical activity interventions for college students, particularly minorities.

Service Quality Assessment Scale (SQAS): An Instrument for Evaluating Service Quality of Health-Fitness Clubs

This study was designed to develop the Service Quality Assessment Scale to evaluate the service quality of health-fitness clubs. Through a review of literature, field observations, interviews, modified application of the Delphi technique, and a pilot study, a preliminary scale with 46 items was formulated. The preliminary scale was administered to members of one health-fitness club. From exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the pilot test data, 6 factors emerged. Next the revised scale (reduced to a 40-item scale) was administered to 10 health-fitness clubs (N = 1,202). The data set was split into halves: one for EFA and the other for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Six factors emerged in the EFA: Staff, Program, Locker Room, Physical Facility, Workout Facility, and Child Care. The fit indexes from the CFA indicated that the model was permissible (e.g., Root Mean Square Error of Approximation = .07, Standardized Root Mean Square Residual = .05, Comparative Fit Index = .87). All the factors had acceptable alpha and composite reliability coefficients. The model was then tested for invariance across gender; 9 items were eliminated due to a lack of invariance for factor loadings or tau coefficients. The 31-item scale with 6 factors displayed sound psychometric properties and invariance for factor loadings and tau coefficients, and can be utilized to evaluate service-quality issues in various health-fitness club settings.

Development of a scale measuring destination image

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to develop the scale of destination image (SDI) to assess destination image affecting the consumption associated with tourism.Design/methodology/approach – The scale was developed through four steps: review of literature, formulation of a preliminary scale, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and examination of predictive validity by a structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis. The preliminary scale consisted of 32 items. Employing a systematic sampling method, a total of 199 research participants responded to a mail survey.Findings – In the CFA with maximum likelihood estimation, four factors with 18 pertinent items are retained. This four‐factor model displays good fit to the data, preliminary construct validity, and high reliability. The SEM analysis reveals that the SDI is found to be positively predictive of tourism behavioral intentions.Originality/value – This paper develops an original multi‐dimensional 18‐item scale measuring destination image from the per...

Dimensions of Athletic Star Power Associated with Generation Y Sports Consumption

The purpose of this study was to examine the dimensions of athletic star power associated with Generation Y sports consumption. Multivariate analyses revealed that athletic star power factors (Professional Trustworthiness, Likeable Personality, Athletic Expertise, Social Attractiveness and Characteristic Style) were positively (p < .05) predictive of the sport consumption factors (Event Consumption and Merchandise Consumption).

General Market Demand Variables Associated with Professional Sport Consumption

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between general market demands and consumption levels of professional sport consumers. This study was accomplished through: (a) validating the theoretical constructs of general market demand variables by conducting a confirmatory factor analysis; (b) examining the predictability of general market demand factors to consumption levels of live and televised sporting events; and (c) investigating the relationships between sociodemographic and general market demand factors. Five hundred and twenty-five residents of a major southern US city were interviewed using a questionnaire that included eight sociodemographic variables, 12 market demand variables under three factors (Game Attractiveness, Economic Consideration, and Marketing Promotion), and 10 professional sporting event consumption variables. The factor structure of the general market demand variables was confirmed. Regression analyses revealed that market demand factors were positively (p Keywords: Market demands, game consumption, professional sports Introduction Professional sport teams have two primary product markets, ticket sales and broadcasting rights, which account for over 80 per cent of team revenue. Teams also have secondary revenue producers such as parking, concessions, programs, endorsements, uses of team logos, and media productions (Leonard, 1997; Noll, 1991). The relationship between live and televised events is reciprocal. Each has influenced and depended on the other for its popularity and commercial success (Jhally, 1989; Whannel, 1992). Spectator attraction and retention at both live and televised events are very critical to the financial success of teams. Nevertheless, spectator retention is the most common problem facing the sport industry (Sawyer & Smith, 1999). Sport games are the core product function of professional sport teams. In recent years, there has been an increased interest in studying consumer demands of the core products. Researchers (Greenstein & Marcum, 1981; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Schofield, 1983; Zhang, Pease, Hui & Michaud, 1995) have generally grouped variables affecting spectator game consumption into the following categories: game attractiveness (e.g. athlete skills, team records, league standing, record-breaking performance, closeness of competition, team history in a community, schedule, convenience, and stadium quality); marketing promotions (e.g. publicity, special events, entertainment programs, and giveaways); and economic considerations (e.g. ticket price, substitute forms of entertainment, income, and competition of other sport events). The majority of previous studies have focused on game attractiveness variables, while the other two areas have been studied to a lesser extent (e.g. Baade & Tiehen, 1990; Marcum & Greenstein, 1985; Noll, 1974,1991; Whitney, 1988; Zak, Huang & Siegfried, 1979). Game attractiveness and marketing promotion variables have generally been found to be positively related to game consumption (Baade & Tiehen, 1990; Becker & Suls, 1983; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Jones, 1984; Marcum & Greenstein, 1985; Noll, 1991; Whitney, 1988; Zhang et al., 1995). For economic variables, income and ticket discounts have consistently been shown to be positively related to game consumption, while ticket price, substitute forms of entertainment, and competition from other sport events have generally been shown to be negatively related to game consumption (Baade & Tiehen, 1990; Bird, 1982; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Noll, 1974; Siegfried & Eisenberg, 1980; Zhang & Smith, 1997; Zhang, Smith, Pease & Jambor, 1997). …

Psychometric Properties of the Eating Attitudes Test

The study was designed to examine the construct validity and internal consistency reliability of the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) using a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Two widely adopted EAT models were tested: three-factor (Dieting, Bulimia and Food Preoccupation, and Oral Control) with 26 items (Garner, Olmsted, Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982), and four-factor (Dieting, Oral Control, Awareness of Food Contents, and Food Preoccupation) with 20 items (Koslowsky et al., 1992). Research participants included two samples of female college students (calibration N = 785, cross-validation N = 298). Maximum Likelihood estimation method was adopted. The fit indexes from the three-factor EAT-26 represented unacceptable model fit (RMSEA = .11, SRMR = .11, CFI = .73, AGFI = .74). Similarly, the fit indexes from the four-factor EAT-20 model provided a poor fit (RMSEA = .09, SRMR = .07, CFI = .85, AGFI = .83); however, after eliminating four items with low factor loadings, the four-factor EAT model with 16 items was found to have an acceptable fit (RMSEA = .08, SRMR = .05, CFI = .91, AGFI = .88). The EAT-16 model was then crossvalidated on an independent sample and was found to have acceptable configural and metric invariance as well as internal consistency reliability.

Impact of core and peripheral service quality on consumption behavior of professional team sport spectators as mediated by perceived value

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the structural relationship of core service quality and peripheral service quality factors to the consumption of professional team sport games while considering the mediating influence of perceived value. This study simultaneously incorporated core service and peripheral service quality factors into one study and examined their direct and indirect relationships with game consumption behaviors. Participants (N=222) responded to a survey at various metropolitan areas. Adopting the two-step structural equation modeling approach, the proposed measurement model and the structural model were found to have good psychometric properties. In the structural relationship analyses, home team, opposing team, game promotion, game amenities, venue quality, and perceived value were found to be predictive of behavioral intentions. Venue quality was the only factor that had an indirect relationship with behavioral intentions through perceived value. The findings are interpreted in the contexts of theoretical and practical implications.

VALUE DIMENSIONS OF PROFESSIONAL SPORT AS VIEWED BY SPECTATORS

This study examined the value dimensions of professional sport to the community as perceived by the spectators. Three stages were conducted: (a) formulation of the Community Impact Scale (CIS), (b) test of measurement properties, and (c) application of the scale. The initial scale was formulated by identifying 70 value areas of professional sport through a literature review. Each was phrased into bipolar statements using a blend of semantic differential and Likert-type 5-point scales. Five professors tested the content validity. A random sample of professional sport spectators (N = 224) participated in testing and applying the scale. Construct validity was tested through a factor analysis. Eight factors with 45 items were determined. The resolved scale displayed acceptable internal consistency. An application of the CIS revealed that 5 demographic variables (age, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, education, and occupation) affect the perceptions of spectators on the community value of professional sport.

Comparison of Volunteer Motivations in Different Youth Sport Organizations

Abstract Volunteers are a crucial component of the work force in the sport industry, particularly in youth sports. Understanding the factors that cause and sustain sport volunteerism would assist sport organizations in recruiting and retaining volunteers. The purpose of the current study was to compare motivation among volunteers at different youth sport organizations/events. Research participants (n=1,099) were four groups of volunteers working at international, national, local and special-needs youth sport organizations/events, who responded to the Modified Volunteer Functions Inventory for Sports (MVFIS) with six factors: Values, Understanding, Social, Career, Enhancement and Protective. A factorial (2×4) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed that the mean vector MVFIS factor scores were significantly different among the various organization types and between genders. Follow-up analyses revealed that volunteers working at the international and special-needs sport events displayed higher motivations in all six factor areas than volunteers at the national and local organizations. Female volunteers were higher in Values and Understanding factors.

Dimensions of Market Demand Associated with Pre-season Training: Development of a Scale for Major League Baseball Spring Training

Most professional sports engage in pre-season training and competition, and many international events are preceded by periods of pre-event training and competition. There is often a fan market for such training and competition. Market interest in pre-season training and competition is studied here in the context of Major League Baseballs spring training in Florida. It is noted that pre-season games are different from regular season games insomuch as they are more laid-back, are more affordable, and offer greater access to the athletes. It is also noted that pre-season training and games can serve as tourist attractions. In this study, a 29-item scale is developed that measures eight market demand variables associated with spring training in Florida: home team, opposing team, game promotion, economic consideration, schedule convenience, vacation activity, nostalgic sentiment, and love baseball. The scale is shown to be internally consistent, and the dimensions are shown to be independent. It is suggested that the scale can be used (or adapted) for future research into the bases for fan interest in pre-season or pre-event competitions.