Danielle D. Wadsworth

The Effect of Physical Education Climates on Elementary Students' Physical Activity Behaviors

BACKGROUND With the growing need for children from underserved populations to be physically active it is imperative to create developmentally appropriate and enjoyable physical education programs that promote physical activity. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of mastery and performance climates on physical activity during physical education. METHODS Children (N = 108) in grades K-2 from a rural southeastern elementary school in the United States were randomly assigned to a mastery- or performance-oriented climate. The climates were implemented over 10 school days during regular scheduled physical education classes, and physical activity was measured with pedometers and system for observing fitness instruction time (SOFIT). Two experts in mastery motivational climates served as teachers for the study and were counterbalanced between conditions. RESULTS Results showed that steps/minute were significantly higher for the mastery condition, and participants in the mastery condition spent significantly less time sitting (p < .001) and in management (p < .001) and more time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA; p = .002) and fitness activities (p = .001). CONCLUSION Results indicate that a mastery approach, which allows children the opportunity to drive their own physical activity, elicits higher step counts and more time spent in MVPA compared with a performance-oriented approach.

The impact of an obstacle course sport education season on students' aerobic fitness levels.

A time-honored goal of physical education has been to improve children’s fitness and health (Silverman, 2005; Thomas, Lee, & Thomas, 2003), particularly given increasing evidence that physical activity is associated with shortand long-term health benefits in youth (Biddle, Gorely, & Stensel, 2004; Trost & Pate, 1999). Indeed, the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE, 2004) listed two of its national standards as “participates regularly in physical activity,” and “achieves and maintains a health-enhancing level of physical fitness.” Nonetheless, although the evidence suggests teachers can do fitness to children through lessons centering on specific fitness outcomes (e.g., Scruggs, Beveridge, & Watson, 2003), the foregrounding of specific fitness objectives presents a double-edged sword. For example, consider the year-long study of fourth-grade children whose physical education curriculum allocated 20% of its time to a required running component (Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2004, 2006). While the students’ run performance improved over time, by the end of the year their levels of intention for future participation in running had declined. Further, students’ work-avoidance goal increased as they related to the 1-mile (1.6 km) run. The challenge of teaching fitness and physical activity to children is further compounded when their conceptions of fitness are examined. Many equated fitness with appearance (i.e., “fitness” = looking good = being thin), and others had vague notions about the relationship between exercise and health (Placek et al., 2001). In response to these two challenges (i.e., a lack of attraction to specific fitness topics and a misinterpretation of fitness concepts), a number of programs have been developed to promote physical activity and fitness with fun activities, while helping children understand fitness is not just sit-ups, push-ups, and running the mile. The most global of these programs is Physical Best (NASPE, 2005), with a stated challenge to “educate, challenge, and encourage all children to develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes for a healthy and fit life” (p. 355). In particular, Physical Best aims to move students from dependence to independence for their fitness and health by promoting regular, enjoyable physical activity. In the last decade, research identified a number of curriculum models that facilitated student engagement in student-centered learning tasks. These included cooperative learning, tactical games, and Sport Education (Dyson, Griffin, & Hastie, 2004). With regard to Sport Education (SE), Siedentop, Hastie, and van der Mars (2004, p. 2) suggested it was “not just about mainstream sports,” and that seasons of weight training or aerobics fit comfortably within a more expanded notion of sport. Nonetheless, Wallhead and O’Sullivan (2005, p. 196) noted that “research examining the efficacy of SE on indices of student fitness is virtually non-existent.” Further, research from Australia reported that only 50% of elementary teachers and 47% of secondary teachers believed fitness outcomes were achieved more successfully under SE than previous approaches (Alexander & Luckman, 2001). Given the need to find ways to help children achieve fitness goals and that students tend to work harder and treat lessons more seriously in the SE curriculum model (see Alexander, Taggart, & Medland, 1993; Carlson & Hastie, 1997), the purpose of this study was to investigate The Impact of an Obstacle Course Sport Education Season on Students’ Aerobic Fitness Levels

The comparison of school-age children's performance on two motor assessments: the Test of Gross Motor Development and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children

Background: Competence in the motor domain is associated with positive, health-related outcomes. Physical education teachers often administer assessments into their programs to measure motor competence for a variety of reasons. Recently, researchers have questioned the relatedness of performance on different assessments. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare motor assessment outcomes of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) in school-age children. Method: Sixty-five children (M = 6.7 years) completed the TGMD-2 and the MABC-2. The TGMD-2 includes two subscales: object control and locomotor skills. The MABC-2 includes three subscales: manual dexterity, aiming and catching, and balance. Standard scores and percentile rankings were used for analysis. Findings: Although 10 of the possible 12 Pearson correlations were significant, the range of r² values was 0.07–0.27 indicating low practical significance. A paired samples t-test revealed that participants scored higher on the MABC-2 (M = 42.2 percentile) compared to the TGMD-2 (M = 17.2 percentile, p < 0.01). A 2 (sex) × 3 (grade) MANOVA revealed no significant sex differences on total performance of the TGMD-2 (F = 0.85, p = 0.36) or the MABC-2 (F = 0.2, p = 0.66), indicating that boys and girls performed similarly on each assessment. Results also revealed no significant differences on total performance on the MABC-2 (F = 0.93, p = 0.4) based on the grade level. However, a grade difference was found on the TGMD-2 (F = 4.3, p = 0.02; η² = 0.128). Tukeys post hoc analysis revealed a significantly higher TGMD-2 performance for first graders compared to second graders (p = 0.03). No significant interaction effect was found for either assessment (p > 0.05). Results indicate that both assessments agreed on 9 out of 11 possible children as at-risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder (81.8% agreement) and 27 out of 29 children as delayed in the motor domain (93.1% agreement). Conclusions: The TGMD-2 and MABC-2 measure different aspects and/or levels of motor competence and should not be used interchangeably. Each assessment may be used to complement each other. Given the level of agreement between the TGMD-2 and the MABC-2 to identify children as at-risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder and developmentally delayed in the motor domain, it may be recommended that physical education teachers administer the TGMD-2 as part of annual testing. Physical educators can act as the first line of defense in early identification of motor delay and can make the appropriate referral based on TGMD-2 performance.

Preschoolers' time on-task and physical activity during a classroom activity break.

This study examined the acute effects of a 10-min teacher-implemented classroom-based activity break (AB) on physical activity participation and time on-task in a preschool-age population. 118 (M age = 3.80 ± 0.69 years) students from one preschool served as participants. The intervention took place over 4 days: 2 days AB were conducted and 2 days typical instruction occurred. Physical activity was monitored via accelerometry and time on-task was measured by direct observation. Results demonstrated that AB led to a higher percent of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during the AB (M = 29.7%, p < .001). Breaks also promoted more on-task behavior (F1,117 = 18.86, p < .001) following the AB. Specifically, the most off-task students before the break improved on-task behavior by 30 percentage points (p < .001). Percent of school day MVPA was also higher during AB days (t117 = 3.274, p = .001). Findings indicate teachers may improve time on-task postbreak for preschoolers with a short bout of physical activity in the classroom, especially in children who are the most off-task. In addition, classroom-based AB resulted in marginal increases in MVPA during breaks that influenced whole day activity.

The Use of the Processes of Change Across the Exercise Stages of Change and Across Varying Intensities and Frequencies of Exercise Behavior

Purpose. Determine the use of the processes of change (POC) across the exercise stages of change and across varying intensities and frequencies of exercise behavior. Design. Cross-sectional design. Setting. University setting. Subjects. Questionnaires were collected from 699 college-aged individuals. Measures. Data were collected for exercise stages of change, POC and exercise behavior. Self-report exercise data were categorized as 0 days, 1 to 2 days, and 3 or more days per week of moderate and vigorous exercise. Analysis. MANOVA assessed differences in the use of the 10 POC across the stages of change and across varying frequencies of moderate and vigorous exercise behavior. Results. Results showed all 10 POC were significant between the exercise stages of change and differing frequencies of moderate and vigorous exercise behavior. Post hoc analysis identified 7 significant processes between adjacent exercise stages of change, 10 significant processes between differing frequencies of moderate exercise behavior, and 9 significant processes between differing frequencies of vigorous exercise behavior. Conclusions. The results for this study suggest that intensity and frequency may be factors in the use of the POC. The use of the POC showed a linear increase across stage, which deviates from the proposed Transtheoretical Model framework and previous research. Additional investigation into the processes and stages of change, and their role in changing exercise behavior is needed.

The Use of Text Messaging to Promote Physical Activity in Working Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND The study evaluated the effects of a text message intervention on physical activity in adult working women. METHODS Eighty-seven participants were randomized to an intervention (n = 41) or control group (n = 46). Pedometer step counts and measures of self-efficacy were collected at baseline, 12 weeks, and 24 weeks. Intervention participants received approximately 3 text messages per week that were motivational, informational, and specific to performing physical activity. RESULTS ANCOVA results showed a significant difference between groups for mean steps per day at 12 weeks (6540.0 vs. 5685.0, P = .01) and no significant difference at 24 weeks (6867.7 vs. 6189.0, P = .06). There was no change in mean step counts during or after the intervention compared with baseline. There was a significant difference between groups for mean self-efficacy scores at 12 weeks (68.5 vs. 60.3, P = .02) and at 24 weeks (67.3 vs. 59.0, P = .03). CONCLUSIONS Intervention participants had higher step counts after 12 and 24 weeks compared with a control group; however, the difference was significant only at the midpoint of the intervention and was attributable to a decrease in steps for the control group. Text messaging did not increase step counts but may be a cost-effective tool for maintenance of physical activity behavior.

How do they do it: working women meeting physical activity recommendations.

OBJECTIVE To identify factors that facilitate adherence to physical activity among employed women. METHODS Participants were 103 employed women (Mean 44.4 years ±11.8). Measures included physical activity by accelerometry, location by global positioning systems, and psychosocial constructs, perception of worksite policies and the built environment by questionnaire. RESULTS Meeting physical activity recommendations was significantly associated with use of the built environment, self-regulation, perception of higher land-use mix diversity, and perception of lower infrastructure and safety for walking. Perception of worksite policies, self-efficacy, and social support were not associated with meeting recommendations. CONCLUSIONS The findings provide evidence that working womens physical activity behavior is influenced by both psychosocial and environmental factors.

Preschoolers’ Physical Activity Participation Across a Yearlong Mastery-Motivational Climate Intervention

ABSTRACT Purpose: This study sought to determine how children’s participation in physical activity during a mastery-motivational climate changed during a 20-week intervention and to compare it to children’s free-play activity during a typical day at their local day-care facility. Method: Twelve 4-year-old children participated in a mastery-motivational climate physical activity program delivered 2 days a week for 20 weeks during a period of 8 months. All children were fitted with an Actigraph GT3X triaxial accelerometer. Data from the accelerometers were reduced to determine minutes of sedentary time, light physical activity, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during (a) all 20 weeks, and (b) Weeks 1 through 4, Weeks 9 through 12, and Weeks 17 to 20 for the mastery climate. Activity levels in the mastery condition were compared to the children’s activity during unplanned free play in Weeks 1, 10, and 20. Results: During the course of the mastery-motivational climate program, participation in sedentary behavior decreased statistically significantly, while participation in MVPA increased statistically significantly. Within the free-play condition, there were no changes in the levels of activity across time, with the children spending on average more than 80% of their time being sedentary. Conclusions: Findings indicate that when specific task structures associated with a mastery climate are included in an instructional setting, these climate manipulations seem to have a direct effect on physical activity levels once the children learned how to manage themselves in the setting. Free-play activity in and of itself does not appear to stimulate MVPA.

A Sport Education Fitness Season’s Impact on Students’ Fitness Levels, Knowledge, and In-Class Physical Activity

ABSTRACT Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which a sport education season of fitness could provide students with recommended levels of in-class moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) while also increasing students’ fitness knowledge and fitness achievement. Method: One hundred and sixty-six 5th-grade students (76 boys, 90 girls) participated in a 20-lesson season called “CrossFit Challenge” during a 4-week period. The Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run, push-ups, and curl-ups tests of the FITNESSGRAM® were used to assess fitness at pretest and posttest, while fitness knowledge was assessed through a validated, grade-appropriate test of health-related fitness knowledge (HRF). Physical activity was measured with Actigraph GT3X triaxial accelerometers. Results: Results indicated a significant time effect for all fitness tests and the knowledge test. Across the entire season, the students spent an average of 54.5% of lesson time engaged in MVPA, irrespective of the type of lesson (instruction, free practice, or competition). Conclusions: The results suggest that configuring the key principles of sport education within a unit of fitness is an efficient model for providing students with the opportunity to improve fitness skill and HRF knowledge while attaining recommended levels of MVPA.

Active gaming and self-paced exercise: A self-determination perspective

Purpose: This study aimed to identify physical activity, enjoyment, and factors for future activity between an active video game (AVG) condition and self-paced exercise (SPE) among college-aged students. Methods: Thirty college-aged volunteers (age=22±1.68 years) completed 4-45 minute physical activity sessions (2 AVG; 2 self-paced). A survey and a brief structured interview followed. Results: Overall, participants expended more calories, accumulated more steps, and more physical activity during SPE; however, participants in the AVG condition met daily exercise recommendations. The majority of participants (81%) enjoyed playing the AVG. Autonomy and competence were found as common themes among those who preferred the SPE condition; whereas, lack of knowledge and exercise variety were emergent themes among those who preferred AVG. Conclusions: This study provides evidence that college students could meet daily exercise recommendations by participating in AVG interventions; although AVGs that provided autonomy and allowed users to demonstrate competence would be preferable. Research Article Active gaming and self-paced exercise: A self-determination perspective Danielle D Wadsworth*, Colleen M Daly and Shelby J Foote Auburn University, School of Kinesiology, Exercise Adherence Laboratory, Auburn, Alabama, USA *Address for Correspondence: Danielle D Wadsworth, Auburn University, School of Kinesiology, 301 Wire Road Auburn, AL 36849, USA, Tel: 334-844-1836; Email: wadswdd@auburn.edu Submitted: 09 March 2018 Approved: 22 March 2018 Published: 23 March 2018 Copyright: 2018 Wadsworth DD, et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.