Leah E. Robinson

Instructional climates in preschool children who are at-risk. Part I: object-control skill development

Part I of this study examined the effect of two 9-week instructional climates (low autonomy [LA] and mastery motivational climate [MMC]) on object-control (OC) skill development in preschoolers (N = 117). Participants were randomly assigned to an LA, MMC, or comparison group. OC skills were assessed at pretest, posttest, and retention test with the Test of Gross Motor Development–2nd Edition. A significant Treatment × Time interaction (p < .001) was present, supporting the effectiveness of both OC instructional climates in improving OC skills over time, while the comparison group resulted in no changes. The authors conclude that developmentally and instructionally appropriate climates are beneficial to OC skill learning, along with the need for “planned” movement experiences in motor learning environments.

Gender Differences in Fundamental Motor Skill Development in Disadvantaged Preschoolers From Two Geographical Regions

Abstract This study examined the influence of gender and region on object control (OC) and locomotor skill development. Participants were 275 midwestern African American and 194 southwestern Hispanic preschool children who were disadvantaged. All were evaluated on the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (Ulrich, 2000). Two, 2 Gender (girls, boys) x 2 Region (midwest, southwest) analyses of variance were conducted on OC and locomotor percentile rank. Both midwestern and southwestern preschoolers were developmentally delayed in locomotor and OC skills (< 30th percentile). There was a significant difference for gender (p < .0001) and Gender x Region interaction (p = .02) for OC skills. Boys outperformed girls in the midwestern and southwestern regions. For locomotor skills, there was a significant difference for region (p < .001), with midwestern preschoolers having better locomotor skills.

Instructional Climates in Preschool Children Who Are At-Risk. Part II: Perceived Physical Competence

In Part II of this study, we examined the effect of two 9-week instructional climates (low-autonomy [LA] and mastery motivational climate [MMC]) on perceived physical competence (PPC) in preschoolers (N = 117). Participants were randomly assigned to an LA, MMC, or comparison group. PPC was assessed by a pretest, posttest, and retention test with the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance. A significant Treatment × Time interaction (p < .001) was present, supporting that MMC participants reported significantly higher PPC scores over time, while no positive changes were present in LA and comparison participants. The results show that an MMC leads to psychological benefits related to achievement motivation. These findings should encourage early childhood educators to consider the effect of instructional climates on childrens self-perception.

Effect of a Mastery Climate Motor Program on Object Control Skills and Perceived Physical Competence in Preschoolers

Abstract

Body mass index, perceived and actual physical competence: the relationship among young children

BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived physical competence (PPC), actual motor competence (MC) and body mass index (BMI) in young children. METHODS We assessed MC (Test of Gross Motor Development - 2nd Edition), PPC (Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance) and BMI (CDC calculator) of 178 young children ages 4-7 years. RESULTS The linear regression model for the overall sample showed that BMI was a better predictor of PPC than MC. Also, obese children had lower PPC, but showed no differences in MC compared with leaner peers. CONCLUSIONS PPC of young obese children was lower than their leaner counterparts, yet their MC was similar. That outcome draws attention to the importance of promoting positive PPC in young children.

The comparison of performances of preschool children on two motor assessments.

Understanding childrens motor performance on different assessments is important for researchers. The Test of Gross Motor Development–2 (TGMD–2) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children–2 (MABC–2) are motor assessments that use either a process- or product-oriented scoring approach. However, no studies have examined how performances are related to these two types of assessment. This study compared the performance of preschool children on the TGMD–2 and the MABC–2. 32 children (M age = 4.2 yr., SD = 9) completed each test to assess whether each described motor performance similarly. Significant low to moderate Spearmans rank correlations (r2 range = .13–.40) were found between the subscales of the assessments. A related-samples Wilcoxon signed rank test was not significant between total performances on the TGMD–2 and MABC–2. From a practical standpoint, each assessment provides a similar overall description of motor competence in preschool children. However, each assessment results in scores that present different information about motor performance.

The Effect of Physical Education Climates on Elementary Students' Physical Activity Behaviors

BACKGROUND With the growing need for children from underserved populations to be physically active it is imperative to create developmentally appropriate and enjoyable physical education programs that promote physical activity. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of mastery and performance climates on physical activity during physical education. METHODS Children (N = 108) in grades K-2 from a rural southeastern elementary school in the United States were randomly assigned to a mastery- or performance-oriented climate. The climates were implemented over 10 school days during regular scheduled physical education classes, and physical activity was measured with pedometers and system for observing fitness instruction time (SOFIT). Two experts in mastery motivational climates served as teachers for the study and were counterbalanced between conditions. RESULTS Results showed that steps/minute were significantly higher for the mastery condition, and participants in the mastery condition spent significantly less time sitting (p < .001) and in management (p < .001) and more time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA; p = .002) and fitness activities (p = .001). CONCLUSION Results indicate that a mastery approach, which allows children the opportunity to drive their own physical activity, elicits higher step counts and more time spent in MVPA compared with a performance-oriented approach.

Effectiveness of pre-school- and school-based interventions to impact weight-related behaviours in African American children and youth: a literature review

This review assessed the effectiveness of pre‐school‐ and school‐based obesity prevention and/or treatment interventions targeting healthy eating, physical activity or obesity in African American children and adolescents. Systematic searches were conducted for English‐printed research articles published between January 1980 and March 2013. Retained articles included experimental studies conducted in the United States that targeted ≥80% African American/black children and adolescents and/or studies whose results were stratified by race/ethnicity, and that were conducted in pre‐schools/head start or schools (excluding after‐school programmes). Of the 12,270 articles identified, 17 met the inclusion criteria (pre‐school, n = 2; elementary school, n = 7; middle and secondary schools, n = 8). Thirteen studies found significant improvements in nutrition (pre‐school, n = 1; elementary, n = 7; secondary, n = 5) and three found significant improvements in physical activity (pre‐school, n = 1; elementary, n = 2) variables of interest. Two studies (pre‐school, n = 1; secondary, n = 1) reported significant reductions in obesity in African American children. The evidence available suggests school‐based interventions are effective in promoting healthy nutrition behaviours in African American children. Conclusions overall and, particularly, about effects on physical activity and obesity are limited due to the small number of studies, differences in assessment approaches and a lack of follow‐up assessments.

Childhood obesity and community food environments in Alabama's Black Belt region

BACKGROUND Childhood obesity has been rising rapidly in the USA. The rate is higher among those at a lower socioeconomic status and racial/ethnic minority groups. In Alabama, nearly half of the children from rural African American families are overweight or obese. Studies suggest that childrens eating behaviours and weight could be influenced by surrounding food environments. The purpose of this paper is to assess the community food environment and examine the associations with childhood obesity in Alabamas Black Belt region. METHODS This research uses both qualitative and quantitative methods. Weight status of 613 African American students in four elementary schools in a rural county of Alabama was assessed. We examined community food environments around childrens home through GIS (Geographic Information System) and statistical methods. The interrelations between childrens weight and community food environments are explored with multi-level models. RESULTS Approximately 42.1% of surveyed children were overweight or obese, much higher than the national average, 30.6%. In Model 1, convenience stores (3.44; P < 0.01), full service restaurants (8.99; P < 0.01) and supermarkets (-37.69; P < 0.01) were significantly associated with the percentile of body mass index. Fast food stores (-0.93; P = 0.88) were not related to childrens weight. In Model 2, the additions of sociodemographic factors and school effects cause significant changes of the relationships between childrens weight and four types of food outlets. The percentage of African American population (90.23, P < 0.01) and school (6.68, P < 0.01) were positively associated with childrens weight; while median household income (-39.6; P < 0.01) was negatively related to it. CONCLUSION Childrens weight is influenced by community food environments, sociodemographic factors and school context. Findings suggest that policymakers and planners need to improve community food environments of low-income minority communities. Parents and schools should pay more attention to reduce the negative impacts of food environments on children.

The comparison of school-age children's performance on two motor assessments: the Test of Gross Motor Development and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children

Background: Competence in the motor domain is associated with positive, health-related outcomes. Physical education teachers often administer assessments into their programs to measure motor competence for a variety of reasons. Recently, researchers have questioned the relatedness of performance on different assessments. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare motor assessment outcomes of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) in school-age children. Method: Sixty-five children (M = 6.7 years) completed the TGMD-2 and the MABC-2. The TGMD-2 includes two subscales: object control and locomotor skills. The MABC-2 includes three subscales: manual dexterity, aiming and catching, and balance. Standard scores and percentile rankings were used for analysis. Findings: Although 10 of the possible 12 Pearson correlations were significant, the range of r² values was 0.07–0.27 indicating low practical significance. A paired samples t-test revealed that participants scored higher on the MABC-2 (M = 42.2 percentile) compared to the TGMD-2 (M = 17.2 percentile, p < 0.01). A 2 (sex) × 3 (grade) MANOVA revealed no significant sex differences on total performance of the TGMD-2 (F = 0.85, p = 0.36) or the MABC-2 (F = 0.2, p = 0.66), indicating that boys and girls performed similarly on each assessment. Results also revealed no significant differences on total performance on the MABC-2 (F = 0.93, p = 0.4) based on the grade level. However, a grade difference was found on the TGMD-2 (F = 4.3, p = 0.02; η² = 0.128). Tukeys post hoc analysis revealed a significantly higher TGMD-2 performance for first graders compared to second graders (p = 0.03). No significant interaction effect was found for either assessment (p > 0.05). Results indicate that both assessments agreed on 9 out of 11 possible children as at-risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder (81.8% agreement) and 27 out of 29 children as delayed in the motor domain (93.1% agreement). Conclusions: The TGMD-2 and MABC-2 measure different aspects and/or levels of motor competence and should not be used interchangeably. Each assessment may be used to complement each other. Given the level of agreement between the TGMD-2 and the MABC-2 to identify children as at-risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder and developmentally delayed in the motor domain, it may be recommended that physical education teachers administer the TGMD-2 as part of annual testing. Physical educators can act as the first line of defense in early identification of motor delay and can make the appropriate referral based on TGMD-2 performance.