David A. Fennell

A content analysis of ecotourism definitions

One of the most habitual practices in the sub-field of ecotourism, from both academic and industry perspectives, is the development of definitions. Although the reasons for such a proliferation of definitions is unknown, it appears as though the trend will continue. This research sought to better understand the concept of ecotourism through an examination of 85 definitions of the term (chiefly from the perspective of 20 variables), using a content analysis methodology. The variables most frequently cited in the definitions include: (i) reference to where ecotourism occurs, e.g. natural areas; (2) conservation; (3) culture; (4) benefits to locals; and (5) education. From the perspective of time, the data indicate that the years ranging from 1991 to 1996, were the most productive in terms of the development of ecotourism definitions, and more specifically 1994 to 1996, when a number of the most comprehensive of these were coined. Conservation, education, ethics, sustainability, impacts and local benefits were variables which were better represented in the more recent definitions, showing a changing emphasis in how the term has been conceptualised over time.

Managing protected areas for sustainable tourism: prospects for adaptive co-management

This paper looks at the challenging enterprise of managing protected areas for sustainable tourism. It notes that during the past 25 years multistakeholder conflicts, complexity and uncertainty have emerged and persisted as important issues requiring managerial responses. These issues reflect substantial paradigmatic shifts in pursuing and understanding sustainability. Governance directs attention to broad participatory approaches, and complex systems theory emphasises transformative changes and an integrative perspective that couples human and natural systems (a social–ecological system). The paper envisions the prospects of adaptive co-management as an alternative approach to protected areas management for sustainable tourism. It also makes the case for an interdisciplinary approach by highlighting important and informative developments outside tourism studies. Adaptive co-management bridges governance and complex systems by bringing together cooperative and adaptive approaches to management. In appraising the potential for adaptive co-management attention is systematically directed to conceptual, technical, ethical and practical dimensions. While adaptive co-management is clearly not a universal answer, experiences and knowledge from natural resource management raise salient prospects for the approach to be insightfully applied to protected areas for sustainable tourism.

Codes of ethics and tourism: an exploratory content analysis.

Abstract The purpose of this paper was to investigate the content of a number of codes of ethics∗ from the tourism industry. To accomplish this objective, the researchers analysed 414 statements from 40 codes of ethics based upon a theoretical framework. This framework was developed using ethical theory and locus of analysis (LOA) constructs. Six categories emerged from the data and were juxtaposed with the ethics-LOA theoretical framework. The results of this study demonstrate that codes of ethics are generally deontological in nature. Implications of this ethical orientation are discussed and recommendations for future code development are provided.

Ecotourism policy and planning.

Policy - balancing theory and practice ecotourism policy - a general perspective case studies - Africa, Europe, Asia, North America, Central and South America, Australia and New Zealand, critical environments. (Part contents).

The ecotourium concept and tourism-conservation symbiosis.

The credibility of contemporary ecotourism is threatened by the global dominance of a model that minimally fulfils the three core criteria – nature-based attractions, learning opportunities, ecological and sociocultural sustainability – that characterise this sector. A more rigorous ‘comprehensive’ model is better capable of fulfilling ecotourism’s potential to achieve sustainable outcomes, but only if this model embraces both the hard and soft dimensions of the sector. Based on the latter premise and informed by the principles of complexity, knowledge sharing and interdisciplinarity, we propose the development of an international network of protected areas ‘ecotouriums’ that is designed to stimulate positive socioeconomic change within local communities and maintain and improve the ecological health of protected areas. Cornerstone themes that enable the ecotourium concept are research and education, ecological health, community participation and development, and partnerships.

Measuring the ethical nature of tourism operators

Abstract Selected ecotourism, adventure, fishing, cruiseline, and golf operators were studied in an effort to determine possible ethical differences among them as distinct groups. Through the implementation of a multidimensional ethics scale, the resulting data illustrate that ecotourism operators were in fact more ethical than their counterparts in the other groups. This became apparent on the basis of analyzing their responses to ethical economic, social, and ecological issues outlined in three scenarios. The paper examines the influence of education, organizational size, and the use of codes of ethics in day-to-day business operation and practice to help explain the differences that exist among the participating groups.

Ecotourism and the myth of indigenous stewardship.

This paper questions the legitimacy of ecological stewardship as an innate characteristic of traditional societies, a widely held belief in much academic work on ecotourism and manifest in ecotourism operations. Evidence from biologists, archaeologists and anthropologists is used to show that traditional societies found it difficult to manage resources in a sustainable way, with over-utilisation as the norm. Armed with this knowledge, the paper argues that there may be serious philosophical and operational problems inherent in packaging aboriginal ecotourism as having a superior environmental ethic, and a need for further research and changed management practices.

Ecotourism and natural resource protection: implications of an alternative form of tourism for host nations.

The growth of special interest tourism, or ecotourism, brings with it several concerns associated with the protection of the natural areas and features to which these types of tourists are drawn. In this paper, the concept of ecotourism is examined first as a form of alternative tourism, then case study examples are described that exemplify the special concerns for the natural resource base of host nations, and a profile of Canadian ecotourists to Costa Rica is presented as an illustration, their unique behaviours and expectations. Finally, the implications of ecotourism for host nations and for ecotourists are discussed emphasising the need to develop a management strategy that both protects the natural resource base of the host nation and provides the types of experiences that ecotourists expect from their visit.

Tourism and the Precautionary Principle

The precautionary principle is an emerging norm of international environmental policy affirmed in many treaties and laws. The principle, congruent to the ideal of sustainable development, is a controversial future-focused planning and regulatory mechanism which mandates that to protect against threats of serious and irreversible damage, precaution should be exercised even before harm can be scientifically demonstrated. The intent of this paper is to provide a literature review of the precautionary principle, examine the fundamental concepts underlying the principle and present an introductory discussion regarding its applicability to the tourism industry. Time and again numerous direct and indirect impacts are produced by the tourism industry, yet the potential for integrating precaution into tourism planning has not been examined. The authors consider the critical elements of the principle (uncertainty, risk, costbenefit analysis and science) in relation to the tourism industry, and provide examples of reference to the principle in the policy documents of non-governmental tourism organisations. An adapted framework is proposed for incorporating the precautionary principle into better tourism-industry decision-making. The precautionary principle is predicated as a viable tourism development tool and planning mechanism that safeguards environmental and human health by anticipating and controlling for future impacts of tourism.

Myth or substance: an examination of altruism as the basis of volunteer tourism

Abstract Altruism is commonly associated with volunteer tourism as a motivational force for participants and a key factor in their on‐site experiences. In this paper we seek a better understanding of the term altruism, and how it applies to the volunteer tourism sector. By applying altruism models that include outcomes of helping defined as both instrumental and ultimate goals, we review the volunteer tourism literature to look for egoistic and altruistic goals. Specifically, we examine volunteer tourists’ motivations as well as experiences and benefits as outlined in 43 academic papers. The results suggest that, while volunteer tourists may behave in an altruistic manner, personal benefits derived from the experience by and large dominate the experience. It would appear that volunteer tourism represents a form of social egoism, which depending on the management of the volunteer tourists, and the goals and implementation of the projects goals, will indeed benefit local environments and communities. To move the debate forward, we suggest that the market forces as applied to the volunteer tourism sector may be examined, and other terms such as Eudaimonia be used to explain the pluralistic motivations, desires, and roles of volunteer tourists.