Derald Wing Sue

Racial microaggressions in everyday life: implications for clinical practice

Racial microaggressions are brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults toward people of color. Perpetrators of microaggressions are often unaware that they engage in such communications when they interact with racial/ethnic minorities. A taxonomy of racial microaggressions in everyday life was created through a review of the social psychological literature on aversive racism, from formulations regarding the manifestation and impact of everyday racism, and from reading numerous personal narratives of counselors (both White and those of color) on their racial/cultural awakening. Microaggressions seem to appear in three forms: microassault, microinsult, and microinvalidation. Almost all interracial encounters are prone to microaggressions; this article uses the White counselor--client of color counseling dyad to illustrate how they impair the development of a therapeutic alliance. Suggestions regarding education and training and research in the helping professions are discussed.

Multidimensional Facets of Cultural Competence

Calls for incorporating cultural competence in psychology have been hindered for a number of reasons: belief in the universality of psychological laws and theories, the invisibility of monocultural policies and practices, differences over defining cultural competence, and the lack of a conceptual framework for organizing its multifaceted dimensions. A proposed multidimensional model of cultural competence (MDCC) incorporates three primary dimensions: (a) racial and culture-specific attributes of competence, (b) components of cultural competence, and (c) foci of cultural competence. Based on a 3 (Awareness, Knowledge, and Skills) × 4 (Individual, Professional, Organizational, and Societal) × 5 (African American, Asian American, Latino/Hispanic American, Native American, and European American) factorial combination, the MDCC allows for the systematic identification of cultural competence in a number of different areas. Its uses in education and training, practice, and research are discussed.

Racial microaggressions in the life experience of Black Americans.

Racial microaggressions cause considerable psychological distress among Black Americans and are manifested in nearly all interracial encounters. They set in motion energy-depleting attempts to determine whether incidents were racially motivated. Reactions can be classified into 4 major themes: healthy paranoia, sanity check, empowering and validating self, and rescuing offenders. Microaggressions result in high degrees of stress for Blacks because of denigrating messages: “You do not belong,” “You are abnormal,” “You are intellectually inferior,” “You cannot be trusted,” and “You are all the same.” Feelings of powerlessness, invisibility, forced compliance and loss of integrity, and pressure to represent one’s group are some of the consequences.

Barriers to Effective Cross-Cultural Counseling

Many mental health professionals have noted that racial and ethnic factors may act as impediments to counseling. Misunderstandings that arise from cultural variations in verbal and nonverbal communication may lead to alienation and/or an inability to develop trust and rapport, An analysis of the generic characteristics of counseling reveals three variables that interact in such a way as to seriously hinder counseling with third-world groups: (a) language variables—use of standard English and verbal communication; (b) class-bound values —strict adherence to time schedules, ambiguity, and seeking long-range solutions; (c) culture-bound values — individual centered, verbal/emotional/behavioral expressiveness, client to counselor communication, openness and intimacy, cause-effect orientation, and mental and physical well-being distinction. These generic characteristics are contrasted with value systems of various ethnic groups. Implications for counseling are explored

Racial Microaggressions and Difficult Dialogues on Race in the Classroom

A qualitative study supports the observation that difficult dialogues on race and racism are often triggered by racial microaggressions that make their appearance in classroom encounters or educational activities and materials. Difficult dialogues are filled with strong powerful emotions that may prove problematic to both students and teachers. When poorly handled by teachers, difficult dialogues can assail the personal integrity of students of color while reinforcing biased worldviews of White students. The success or failure of facilitating difficult dialogues on race is intimately linked to the characteristics and actions of instructors and their ability to recognize racial microaggressions. Implications regarding specific education and training recommendations are presented.

Perceptions of racial microaggressions among black supervisees in cross-racial dyads

Perceived racial microaggressions by White supervisors were examined through a qualitative analysis of 10 self-identified Black doctoral supervisees in counseling and clinical psychology. Results indicated 7 microaggression themes directed toward this group: (a) invalidating racial–cultural issues, (b) making stereotypic assumptions about Black clients, (c) making stereotypic assumptions about Black supervisees, (d) reluctance to give performance feedback for fear of being viewed as racist, (e) focusing primarily on clinical weaknesses, (f) blaming clients of color for problems stemming from oppression, and (g) offering culturally insensitive treatment recommendations. The impact of these racial microaggressions was found to be detrimental to Black trainees, the supervisory relationship, and, indirectly, to clients of color. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Whiteness and ethnocentric monoculturalism: making the "invisible" visible.

Whiteness and ethnocentric monoculturalism are powerful and entrenched determinants of worldview. Because they are invisible and operate outside the level of conscious awareness, they can be detrimental to people of color, women, and other marginalized groups in society. Both define a reality that g

Psychopathology among Asian Americans: a model minority?

The prevalence of psychopathology among Asian Americans has been a source of debate. Some investigators believe that the prevalence rate is quite low, whereas others argue that it is fairly high. A review of the literature suggests that at this time, it is not possible to determine the specific rates of psychopathology. However, evidence does suggest that their rates of mental disorders are not extraordinarily low. Thus, public portrayals of Asian Americans as a well-adjusted group do not reflect reality. Attempts to determine the exact prevalence rates have been hindered by characteristics of the Asian American population, particularly its relatively small size, heterogeneity, and rapid changes in demographics. It is suggested that aggregate research, in which different Asian American groups are combined, is important for policy considerations, broad cultural comparisons, and establishing baseline information. To advance scientific contributions and understanding, studies that examine the correlates and course of disorders within specific Asian American groups are necessary as well.

Factors Contributing to Optimal Human Functioning in People of Color in the United States

Many conceptualizations of optimal human functioning are based on Western European notions of healthy and unhealthy development and daily living. When applied to people of color in the United States, however, these conceptualizations may prove inapplicable because of their Western culture–bound nature. The authors explore the role that cultural values, beliefs, and practices play in definitions of optimal functioning and describe how overcoming adverse circumstances has resulted in the development of adaptive assets for people of color.

Racial microaggressions and daily well-being among Asian Americans.

Although epidemiological studies and community surveys of Asian Americans have found that lifetime occurrences of racial discrimination are associated with increased risk for psychological morbidity, little is known about how exposure to racial discrimination is patterned in everyday life. Extrapolating from previous qualitative research (Sue, Bucceri, Lin, Nadal, & Torino, 2007), this study presents data on the prevalence and psychological correlates of everyday racial microaggressions that reflect the Asian American experience. Measures of positive affect, negative affect, somatic symptoms, and racial microaggressions were completed by 152 Asian Americans each day for up to 14 consecutive days. Approximately 78% of participants reported some form of racial microaggression within the 2-week study period. Multilevel analyses indicated that elevations in daily microaggressions, as well as greater microaggressions on average, predicted increases in somatic symptoms and negative affect. Implications of these findings for racial microaggression research and clinical practice are discussed.