Dina Burkolter

Designing training for process control simulators: a review of empirical findings and current practices

Although simulators have been widely used as training environments in different industries (e.g. oil and nuclear power), there is little rigorous empirical work evaluating the effectiveness of the training methods employed. This article examines the use of simulator training in process control environments. The results of an exploratory field study are reported and the current practices of simulator training are described. The study revealed that simulator training varied considerably across organisations, often with little theoretical or empirical work to guide training design. To evaluate the utility and effectiveness of different methods of simulator training in process control environments, the article also presents a literature review of the research on laboratory- and field-based training. Several training methods are identified as having particular potential for temporal and adaptive transfer and are to be empirically tested in future studies.

The effects of heuristic rule training on operator performance in a simulated process control environment

In complex work environments, the occurrence of novel system states represents a particular challenge for the design of training. This article is concerned with the use of heuristic rules to prepare operators for the management of unfamiliar fault states. An experiment was carried out to examine the effects of heuristic rule training on operator performance and system management behaviour. Thirty-nine trainee operators from the chemical industry took part in the study. They were trained for 4 h on a PC-based simulation of a process control task. Operators in the experimental group received training on heuristic rules while operators in the control group did not. One week later the operators participated in a 70-min testing session. While the results showed that heuristic rules training led to better diagnostic performance, it was also associated with increased operator fatigue and impaired secondary task performance. The implications of the findings for using heuristic rule training are discussed.

Comparative study of three training methods for enhancing process control performance: Emphasis shift training, situation awareness training, and drill and practice

Three training methods to improve attention management skills in process control were compared. Forty students from technical disciplines participated in a five-hour module of emphasis shift training (EST), EST combined with situation awareness training (EST/SA), and drill and practice (D&P) on a simulated process control task. Participants were then tested three times for 45min each (immediately after training, two weeks after training, and six weeks after training) for system control performance and diagnostic performance on familiar and nonfamiliar fault states. D&P led to superior diagnostic performance on familiar system faults. EST/SA training supported the diagnosis of novel system faults. EST was less effective than expected for system control performance. Implications for training design in process control are discussed.

The predictive qualities of operator characteristics for process control performance: the influence of personality and cognitive variables.

This article examines the relationship between operator characteristics and process control performance. Thirty-nine trainee operators participated in a 4-h training session of a simulated process control task and a testing session in which various system faults had to be managed. Cognitive ability, cognitive flexibility, self-efficacy and personality traits were measured as operator characteristics. Cognitive ability related positively to system control performance but not to diagnostic performance. Participants with low cognitive flexibility performed best on system control, whereas participants with high cognitive flexibility performed best on diagnostic performance. A hierarchical regression analysis revealed that cognitive ability, cognitive flexibility and declarative knowledge accounted for about 30% of the variability of system control. The findings suggest that consideration of cognitive ability and cognitive flexibility be increased in personnel selection for complex work environments.

Combining principles of Cognitive Load Theory and diagnostic error analysis for designing job aids : Effects on motivation and diagnostic performance in a process control task

Two studies are presented in which the design of a procedural aid and the impact of an additional decision aid for process control were assessed. In Study 1, a procedural aid was developed that avoids imposing unnecessary extraneous cognitive load on novices when controlling a complex technical system. This newly designed procedural aid positively affected germane load, attention, satisfaction, motivation, knowledge acquisition and diagnostic speed for novel faults. In Study 2, the effect of a decision aid for use before the procedural aid was investigated, which was developed based on an analysis of diagnostic errors committed in Study 1. Results showed that novices were able to diagnose both novel faults and practised faults, and were even faster at diagnosing novel faults. This research contributes to the question of how to optimally support novices in dealing with technical faults in process control.

Customization of user interfaces to reduce errors and enhance user acceptance

Customization is assumed to reduce error and increase user acceptance in the human-machine relation. Reconfiguration gives the operator the option to customize a user interface according to his or her own preferences. An experimental study with 72 computer science students using a simulated process control task was conducted. The reconfiguration group (RG) interactively reconfigured their user interfaces and used the reconfigured user interface in the subsequent test whereas the control group (CG) used a default user interface. Results showed significantly lower error rates and higher acceptance of the RG compared to the CG while there were no significant differences between the groups regarding situation awareness and mental workload. Reconfiguration seems to be promising and therefore warrants further exploration.

Designing Training for Temporal and Adaptive Transfer: A Comparative Evaluation of Three Training Methods for Process Control Tasks

Training in process control environments requires operators to be prepared for temporal and adaptive transfer of skill. Three training methods were compared with regard to their effectiveness in supporting transfer: Drill & Practice (D&P), Error Training (ET), and procedure-based and error heuristics training (PHT). Communication electronics trainees (N = 61) were tested twice (9 and 13 weeks after training). The D&P group outperformed the ET group with respect to temporal transfer. The expected benefits of PHT and ET for adaptive transfer were not found. The superiority of D&P demonstrates that cognitive tasks also need repeated practice for temporal transfer.

Waste Water Treatment Simulation (WaTr Sim): Validation of a New Process Control Simulation Tool for Experimental Training Research

We introduce a new simulation tool designed for experimental training research and present results from an experimental study conducted to validate it. The Waste Water Treatment Simulation (WaTr Sim) is a computer-based simulation of a complex process control task characterized by high dynamics, interrelated-ness, feedback delays, and opaqueness. It includes start-up and shut-down procedures, monitoring, and control. In a training experiment (N = 48) WaTr Sim was evaluated and compared to a well-studied process control simulation called Cabin Air Management System (CAMS). Diagnostic performance on CAMS was especially related to those performance elements in WaTr Sim that required consideration of and adherence to fixed and contingent sequences. WaTr Sim has unique features, such as the possibility of creating scenarios to study instance-based learning or transfer tasks. Findings indicate that the simulation can be employed in training experiments to analyze various demands of process control tasks.

“Being prepared for the infrequent”: A comparative study of two refresher training approaches and their effects on temporal and adaptive transfer in a process control task

Operators working with highly automated technical systems face the challenge of skill retention due to few opportunities to apply the skills they acquired during initial training. Therefore, the use of refresher training is common in many high-risk environments. However, so far, the design and effectiveness of refresher training has not been focused on in training and human factors related research. We compared two refresher training approaches–practice and symbolic rehearsal–to a control group without refresher training. Fifty-nine engineering students were trained for one hour on a simulated process control task. A week later, the practice group completed four trials with the simulated task and the symbolic rehearsal group underwent four trials in written form. The final testing session took place two weeks after initial training. Refresher training was effective for temporal transfer, with the practice refresher group performing significantly better than the symbolic rehearsal group.

Process control and risky decision-making: moderation by general mental ability and need for cognition.

Human factors and ergonomics research could benefit from focusing more strongly on individual differences – especially trait variables. The present study suggests the analysis of moderator effects as a promising way to enhance understanding of trait variables and process control performance. Process control performance was studied by analysing moderator effects of general mental ability (GMA) and need for cognition (NC) on risky decision-making (RDM) and performance. Fifty engineering students were trained on a process control task using a computer-based simulation for three hours and tested twice thereafter. Risky decision-making was measured using a computerised gambling task while GMA and NC were assessed with questionnaires. Risky decision-making in interaction with each GMA and NC explained variance in performance over and above variance explained by the single effects. In conclusion, the analysis of moderator effects between individual difference variables and process control performance seems promising. Practitioner Summary: Individual difference variables affect learning and performance, but have often not been studied to any great extent in human factors research. This article suggests a promising approach to studying individual differences – moderator analyses – and illustrates how such differences can lead to a better understanding of what determines process control performance.