Edward P. Lemay

What Is Beautiful Is Good Because What Is Beautiful Is Desired: Physical Attractiveness Stereotyping as Projection of Interpersonal Goals

The authors posit that the attribution of desirable interpersonal qualities to physically attractive targets is a projection of interpersonal goals; people desire to form and maintain close social bonds with attractive targets and then project these motivations onto those targets. Three studies support this model. Tendencies to see attractive novel targets depicted in photographs (Study 1), attractive romantic partners (Study 2), and attractive friends (Study 3) as especially interpersonally receptive and responsive were explained by perceivers’ heightened desires to bond with attractive individuals. Additional findings regarding response latencies (Study 1) also supported this model. Many instances of the “beautiful is good” effect may not reflect stereotyping as it is typically construed. Rather, they may reflect projection of heightened desires to bond with beautiful people.

Ways of Giving Benefits in Marriage Norm Use, Relationship Satisfaction, and Attachment-Related Variability

Couples reported on bases for giving support and on relationship satisfaction just prior to and approximately 2 years into marriage. Overall, a need-based, noncontingent (communal) norm was seen as ideal and was followed, and greater use of this norm was linked to higher relationship satisfaction. An exchange norm was seen as not ideal and was followed significantly less frequently than was a communal norm; by 2 years into marriage, greater use of an exchange norm was linked with lower satisfaction. Insecure attachment predicted greater adherence to an exchange norm. Idealization of and adherence to a communal norm dropped slightly across time. As idealization of a communal norm and own use and partner use of a communal norm decreased, people high in avoidance increased their use of an exchange norm, whereas people low in avoidance decreased their use of an exchange norm. Anxious individuals evidenced tighter links between norm use and marital satisfaction relative to nonanxious individuals. Overall, a picture of people valuing a communal norm and striving toward adherence to a communal norm emerged, with secure individuals doing so with more success and equanimity across time than insecure individuals.

Surviving Relationship Threats The Role of Emotional Capital

In this article, a Theory of Emotional Capital is investigated, which stipulates that relationships are able to withstand threats when partners have built “emotional capital” within the relationship (by contributing to positive, shared experiences). Support for this idea was obtained in two studies using two samples (newlywed couples and more established married couples) and two methodologies (daily diary and observational methods). Both studies showed that individuals with high emotional capital were less reactive to relationship threats than those with low emotional capital. The importance of emotional capital for healthy and stable relationships is discussed.

Responding to Partners’ Expression of Anger: The Role of Communal Motivation:

The effects of communal motivation on reactions to relationship partners’ expressed anger were examined. In Study 1, married couples reported on the communal strength of their marriage, their expressions of anger to their spouse, and relationship satisfaction. In Study 2, college students reported on the communal strength of their best friendships, those friends’ expressions of anger, and their evaluations of and provision of support to those friends. In Study 3, communal motivation toward a stranger who expressed mild anger was manipulated and evaluation of that stranger was measured. In all three studies, low communal motivation was associated with more negative evaluations of angry partners, lower relationship satisfaction, and, in Study 2, lower support provision. In contrast, when communal motivation was high, these decreases either did not occur (Studies 1 and 3) or were diminished (Study 2), and in Study 2, partners’ anger was associated with increased provision of social support.

Implications of Reflected Appraisals of Interpersonal Insecurity for Suspicion and Power

In three studies, the authors tested a model positing that chronically insecure individuals often believe that their relationship partners view them as highly insecure. In turn, because of expectations regarding the social consequences of expressing insecurities, these reflected appraisals of insecurity are thought to predict suspicion of partners’ authenticity and feelings of powerlessness within relationships. Results supported these predictions. Self-esteem, attachment anxiety, neuroticism, proclivity for anger, and proclivity for hurt feelings predicted reflected appraisals of insecurity independently of whether partners detected insecurity. In turn, chronically insecure participants were suspicious of their partners’ authenticity and felt powerless in their relationships partly because they believed they were viewed as insecure. This research suggests that beliefs that one is perceived as insecure, even when they are misguided, can partially explain interpersonal cognitions associated with actually being insecure.

Accuracy and projection in perceptions of partners’ recent emotional experiences: Both minds matter.

In 2 studies involving 96 married couples (Study 1) and 118 romantic couples (Study 2), we investigated partners’ perceptions of each others’ recently experienced emotions. In both studies, both individuals within each couple independently provided reports of (a) their own recently experienced emotions, (b) their perceptions of their partners’ recently experienced emotions, and (c) the extent to which they had expressed the emotions they had experienced to their partner. We then assessed the extent to which perceptions of partners’ emotions were (a) accurate (i.e., in agreement with partners’ independent reports of their own feelings) and (b) a function of the perceiver’s own emotions (i.e., projected). Significant evidence for both accuracy in perceiving emotions (4 of 7 emotions in Study 1; 8 of 9 emotions in Study 2) and for projection of perceivers’ own emotions onto partners was obtained (5 of 7 emotions in Study 1; 9 of 9 emotions in Study 2). Effects for all remaining emotions trended in the same directions. There was almost no moderation of these effects by targets’ having knowingly expressed the emotions. Implications of the patterning of findings for different emotions for the social functions of accuracy and projection in perceiving emotions are discussed.

Relationship expectations and relationship quality.

This article reviews research that examines the effects of relationship expectations on interpersonal relationships. Most of the published research suggests that positive relationship expectations are associated with better interpersonal functioning, as indicated by greater relationship persistence, more positive relationship evaluations and motivations, more prorelationship behavior, more forgiveness, and reduced contempt. Research on related constructs, such as relationship efficacy, implicit theories, trust, and insecurity dispositions, suggests a similar conclusion. However, there is some evidence that positive relationship expectations may sometimes have negative effects on healthy relationship functioning. A model of the multiple pathways through which relationship expectations may promote and threaten relationship quality is described, and several directions for future research are suggested.

Linguistic Markers of Emotion Regulation and Cardiovascular Reactivity Among Older Caregiving Spouses

This study examined linguistic markers of emotion regulation and cardiovascular stress reactivity in spousal caregivers. Fifty-three individuals were audiotaped while they privately disclosed an instance of partner suffering and a typical partner interaction (i.e., a meal together). Systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate (HR) were measured. Linguistic analysis determined emotion and cognitive processing word use. Results revealed that using more positive emotion words was associated with lower HR reactivity in each verbal account. Caregivers who used fewer cognitive processing words (e.g., think, realize, because) overall had the highest HR reactivity to talking about the partners suffering. These findings have implications for interventions for all caregivers as well as distinguishing more resilient caregivers from those who may be at a higher risk for caregiver burden.

The forecast model of relationship commitment.

Four studies tested the forecast model of relationship commitment, which posits that forecasts of future relationship satisfaction determine relationship commitment and prorelationship behavior in romantic relationships independently of other known predictors and partially explain the effects of these other predictors. This model was supported in 2 cross-sectional studies, a daily report study, and a study using behavioral observation, informant, and longitudinal methods. Across these studies, forecasts of future relationship satisfaction predicted relationship commitment and prorelationship behavior during relationship conflict and partially explained the effects of relationship satisfaction, quality of alternatives, and investment size. These results suggest that representations of the future have a prominent role in interpersonal processes. (PsycINFO Database Record

Daily Affective and Behavioral Forecasts in Romantic Relationships Seeing Tomorrow Through the Lens of Today

The current research examined accuracy and bias in daily forecasts within romantic relationships. Results of an extensive daily report study involving 200 romantic dyads and 4,822 daily observations suggested that predictions regarding affect and partner behavior that will occur tomorrow are somewhat accurate, predicted by actual experiences tomorrow, but are largely biased by current experiences. Participants appeared to project the current state of their relationship into the future, a temporal projection bias. This bias predicted forecasters’ pro-relationship motivation and behavior. Forecasters were less likely to exhibit the temporal projection bias when they were high in relationship commitment, and they were more likely to exhibit the bias when they were high in need for cognitive closure, suggesting that motivation can constrain or amplify tendencies to project the present into the future. Implications for interpersonal relationships are discussed.