Ellsworth Faris

The Social System.

In the history of sociological theory, Talcott Parsons holds a very special place. His The Structure of Social Action (1937), was a pioneer work that has influenced many social scientists. The present work, The Social System, presents a major scientific and intellectual advance towards the theory of action first outlined in his earlier work.

The Sect and the Sectarian

The isolated religious sect offers unutilized data for the study of the sociology of institutions and also for the investigation of personality. The sect arises in a period of disorganization and is a phase of the redintegration of the community as a whole. The particularistic causal statements are all inadequate since every sect is the result of a unique constellation of forces. The original cadre grows by accretion, and often the distinguishing characteristics of the sect are later additions. The sect does not select any one temperament for its members. The conflict resulting and the inevitable changes are productive of characteristic types in each case. The sect is analogous to a primitive tribe and the personalities are the subjective phases of the group life. Experience is creative. The motives for carrying on the life of the sect may differ greatly from those which began it. The polemic arguments in defense of the sect correspond to the derivations of Pareto. In addition to the derivations it is possible to study the inner attitudes which are reminiscent of the residues of Pareto. A sect may unite members who are moved by a wide variety of residues.

Are Instincts Data or Hypotheses

Lack of agreement concerning instincts.-William James made current the doctrine that man has more instints than the animals. Later discussion has revealed much disagreement concerning the definition of instincts and even more uncertainty concerning their number. Lists range from forty, thirty, twenty-six, twenty, fifteen, to four, two and one. The confusion is probably due to tye hypothetical nature of instincts. The genetic explanation of instincts.-The genetic explanation is a sort of mythological effort and has resulted in rather ludicrous stories which pass as explanations. The corrective lies in the study of ethnology by which a comparison of different human customs will reveal the fact that much which seemed at first to be native is really the result of social customs. Instincts are hypotheses: social attitudes are data.-Instincts emphasize similarities which often have no existece. Sociology has at hand empirical data in the form of attitudes, desires, and wishes, whose classification and explanation should be one of its chief concerns. Temperament.-The study of temperamental attitudes is far more profitable for social psychology, for, while temperament is also a hypothesis, it is a necessary one and its concerns individual differences which are of most importance in dealing with problems of personality.

The Concept of Imitation

Imitation, which was formerly treated as an instinct, is now referred to another cause, but usually treated as a unitary process. Three types of so-called imitation exist. Mob activity is similar in mechanism to the hypnotic response to suggestion. The mob releases attitudes already existing. This type is quick and unwitting. A second type is the slow, unwitting. It is typified by the gradual acquisition of dialects or the slow forming of opinions which seem imitative. This type grows out of the redintegrative process, in which one takes the role of another, and thus at times becomes like him. The third type is the conscious copying, which depends on the wishes or ambitions of the person. The copying is merely intrumental. All three mechanisms which produce imitation may be shown to result quite as often in behavior which is so unlike any model that imitation becomes an imposible assumption. The conclusion is that imitation is not an essential attribute of behavior, but a mere accident. The problem ought to inspire extensive researches in order to clear up the unclear issues.

An Estimate of Pareto

Pareto attempts the construction of a system of sociology on the model of celestial mechanics. The correspondence theory of knowledge is explicity adopted. The exact definition of terms is unsuccessfully attempted. The greater part of the discussion is taken up with examples of rationalization and of motives for conduct which are assumed to manifest sentiments or instincts. There is some resemblance to McDougalls theory of instincts but this concept is used uncritically. The main argument is based on an inadequate psychology and disregards the essential sociological data. An attempt is made to explain history by assuming differential heredity in social classes. The book formulates the implicit philosophy of Italian Fascism, advocating the right of the strong to take what they want without apology or appeal to moral principles. The book has no value as sociology but constitutes an interesting and serviceable document for the student of a personality.

Too Many Ph.D.'S?

While 258 candidates for the Ph.D. are in training in 32 institutions, many of these are already employed, and many will go into other fields. There are seventeen institutions, each with more than 5,000 students, which are not in the list of assumed positions. The danger is not of an oversupply so long as ment are well trained. Sociology must be practiced as well as taught. There are positions of research and administration of increasing imprtance. Public-school teaching and administration offers a field for the young sociologist who must in his turn seek the highest training and should shape his ambitions with emphasis on his obligation to the nation.

ALLPORT, GORDON W. Personality: A Psychological Interpretation. Pp. xiv, 588. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1937.

thusiastic group of specialists. Details from recent budget and diet studies are reported for a number of countries. However, the work has some defects. It overestimates the probable relation between changes in physique and diet. National politics impinge upon and emasculate the conclusions about agricultural policy. Too much dependence is placed upon the &dquo;reliability&dquo; of official statistics, and there are too many non-realistic contentions as to what a diet should be or what changes have taken place since rapid urbanization began in the nineteenth century. No doubt recruits and students in some countries are taller than they were in previous periods. However, Hooton’s Harvard studies show that the difference may be due in considerable part to physical rather than to dietary changes. Germany (not represented on the Committee) and Italy (whose delegates did not attend) will find twenty critical pages (206-226) directed mainly by implication at their protective policies, whereas the United States will find only three or four paragraphs directed at acreage restriction and crop reduction. Probably no single human factor, outside of the World War and the Russian Revolution, has had as much to do with decreased nutrition in Western Europe and America during this century as American &dquo;agricultural adjustment.&dquo; Nevertheless, the short discussion (pp. 227-228) relegates it to an innocuous role by implication (saying little and not mentioning it in the summary) and by the nature of the statements. What is said consists of innocuous sentences

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∗The word behaviorism is used with various meanings. The conception here discussed is the definition, which. Professor John B. Watson himself has repeatedly insisted upon.

THE IMPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORISM FOR CHARACTER EDUCATION

Institutional education has two problems that sociology might be concerned with: the content to be inculcated, and the method of imparting it. The first of these concerns the curriculum, and while sociology can describe group needs it can do little if anything to formulate norms. Methods of instruction involve some sociological problems in addition to the well-known psychological ones. There is a third field, that of moral training in the broad sense, in which sociology, and particularly social psychology, feels confident to offer needed help.

The Sociologist and the Educator

Intolerance is here defined as any measure of hatred or bitterness between social groups. Five of these are discussed: national, political, religious, racial, and ideological. National friendships and enmities are arranged by officals and are highly impermanet, but people follow their rulers, unless disordered conditions precipitate a revolution. Political parties attack one another in bitter words, but the wounds are quickly healed because of an underlying common allegiance to the state. Religious prejudice promises to be lessened by the war, since men of many faiths unite in a supreme effort at home and at the front. The prospects for a world and without racial intolerance are very good in some areas and very bad in some others. Ideological differences between radical revolutionary groups and their opponents promise to beven more acute with increasing intolerance, because of the irreconcilable ends and because the secret planning is believed to portend internecine strife.