Erik Ceunen

Accuracy and awareness of perception: related, yet distinct (commentary on Herbert et al., 2012).

3 The finding of Herbert and colleagues (2012) in the January 4 issue of Biological Psychology sheds interesting new perspectives 5 on the correspondence between homeostatic challenges and accu6 racy of heartbeat perception. One of their conclusions is that 7 changes in autonomic activity, which in their study were induced 8 by short-term fasting, intensify overall Interoceptive Awareness 9 (IAw). Below, it is argued that this conclusion can be somewhat 10 misleading; a more nuanced conclusion and additional directions 11 for future research based on this revised conclusion are proposed. 12 In the article of Herbert and colleagues as well as in numer13 ous other articles, heartbeat perception tasks are considered to 14 be a proxy of IAw. To say that “cardiac IAw [. . .] reflects the sen15 sory accuracy of perceiving one’s own cardiac signals” (p.77, Herbert 16 et al., 2012) is to say that IAw and Interoceptive Accuracy (IAc) are 17 synonymous, whereas in fact they are not. IAc specifically refers 18 to the capability of accurately perceiving changes in homeostatic 19 function. To be aware, means to be cognizant, to be mindful. Thus 20 IAw should be taken to mean the cognizant, mindful perception of 21 bodily signals (given the definition of interoception proposed by 22 Herbert and colleagues). Although IAw can be accompanied by an 23 accurate perception of bodily sensations, such accuracy is not nec24 essarily implied. This distinction between awareness and accuracy 25 is highlighted by a study of Khalsa and colleagues (2008) who found 26 that IAw is increased in meditative practices, but IAc is not. 27 Nevertheless, the idea that IAw and IAc can be used inter28 changeably is widespread, and most prevalent in the heartbeat 29 perception literature (e.g., Stewart et al., 2001; Sturges and Goetsch, 3

Learning to fear obstructed breathing: Comparing interoceptive and exteroceptive cues

The present study investigated interoceptive fear conditioning (IFC) to an interoceptive and exteroceptive conditional stimulus (CS) with a severe respiratory load applied for 30s as the unconditional stimulus (US). CSs were another, weak respiratory load in the intero-IFC study (N=74), and a neutral picture in the extero-IFC study (N=42). CSs preceded the US in the paired groups, whereas the unpaired groups received the same number of unpaired CSs and USs. We measured startle blink EMG, self-reported fear and respiration. In the intero-IFC study, the CS-load was associated with larger startle blinks and a smaller decrease in respiratory rate and tidal volume in the paired compared to the unpaired group. In the extero-IFC study, the CS-picture evoked an increase in tidal volume and self-reported fear only in the paired group. In addition, startle potentiation during the CS-picture was greater for the paired than for the unpaired group.

On the origin of interoception

Over the course of a century, the meaning of interoception has changed from the restrictive to the inclusive. In its inclusive sense, it bears relevance to every individual via its link to emotion, decision making, time-perception, health, pain, and various other areas of life. While the label for the perception of the body state changes over time, the need for an overarching concept remains. Many aspects can make any particular interoceptive sensation unique and distinct from any other interoceptive sensation. This can range from the sense of agency, to the physical cause of a sensation, the ontogenetic origin, the efferent innervation, and afferent pathways of the tissue involved amongst others. In its overarching meaning, interoception primarily is a product of the central nervous system, a construct based on an integration of various sources, not per se including afferent information. This paper proposes a definition of interoception as based on subjective experience, and pleas for the use of specific vocabulary in addressing the many aspects that contribute to it.

Detecting coached feigning using the test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) and the structured inventory of Malingered Symptomatology (SIMS)

Undergraduate students were administered the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) and the Structured Inventory of the Malingered Symptomatology (SIMS) and asked to respond honestly, or instructed to feign cognitive dysfunction due to head injury. Before both instruments were administered, symptom-coached feigners were provided with some information about brain injury, while feigners who received a mix of symptom-coaching and test-coaching were given the same information plus advice on how to defeat symptom validity tests. Results show that, although the accuracy of both instruments appears to be somewhat reduced by a mix of symptom coaching and test coaching, the TOMM and SIMS are relatively resistant to different kinds of coaching.

Atypical modulation of startle in women in face of aversive bodily sensations

Eye blink startle magnitude is assumed to be higher in threatening contexts. A scarce amount of studies suggest that this does not hold true when startle is measured during perceived threats to homeostatic integrity. The present study was set up to describe the startle response pattern to a selection of interoceptive stimuli. Female subjects (N=36) were exposed once to 90 s of continued (1) cold pain, (2) inhalation of a gas mixture of 7.5% CO2, and (3) breathing against an inspiratory and expiratory resistive load. Each stimulus was preceded and followed by a 90 second period of rest, respectively labeled baseline and recovery. Even after correcting eye blink startle responses for habituation, a decreased startle amplitude was evident during these stimuli. Results suggest that startle amplitude during aversive stimulation is inversely correlated with perceived fearfulness for women, although further studies are necessary to corroborate this interpretation.

Effect of seated trunk posture on eye blink startle and subjective experience: comparing flexion, neutral upright posture, and extension of spine

Postures are known to be able to affect emotion and motivation. Much less is known about whether (affective) modulation of eye blink startle occurs following specific postures. The objective of the current study was to explore this. Participants in the present study were requested to assume three different sitting postures: with the spine flexed (slouched), neutral upright, and extended. Each posture was assumed for four minutes, and was followed by the administration of brief self-report questionnaires before proceeding to the next posture. The same series of postures and measures were repeated prior to ending the experiment. Results indicate that, relative to the other postures, the extended sitting posture was associated with an increased startle, was more unpleasant, arousing, had smaller levels of dominance, induced more discomfort, and was perceived as more difficult. The upright and flexed sitting postures differed in the level of self-reported positive affect, but not in eye blink startle amplitudes.