Erik Steen Kristensen

Approaches to assess the environmental impact of organic farming with particular regard to Denmark

Abstract Ever increasing attention is being paid to the environmental impact of intensive agricultural practices, and in this context organic farming is gaining recognition as a relatively friendly production system. In general, the risk of harmful environmental effects is lower with organic than with conventional farming methods, though not necessarily so. This review examines organic farming in the light of European conditions with special regard to recent research findings from Denmark. It specifies the environmental problems caused by modern farming practices and discusses appropriate indicators for assessing their impact. A driving force-state-response (DSR) framework is employed to organise and understand the processes and mechanisms that lie behind the impact of agriculture on nature and the environment. Important groups of environmental indicators are selected that characterise (a) the aquatic environment (nitrate and phosphorus leaching), (b) the soil (organic matter, biology and structure), (c) the ecosystem (arable land, semi-cultivated areas, small biotopes and landscape), and (d) resource usage and balances (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and energy use). The paper also reviews several empirical studies. With regard to soil biology, organic farming is usually associated with a significantly higher level of biological activity (bacteria (Monera), fungi (Mycota), springtails (Collembola), mites (Arachnida), earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris)), due to its versatile crop rotations, reduced applications of nutrients, and the ban on pesticides. In most cases there is also a lower surplus of nutrients and less leaching with organic than with conventional farming. However, poor management (e.g., the ploughing of grass and legumes (Fabates) at the wrong time of year with no subsequent crops to capture the mineralised nitrogen), low self-sufficiency in feed, and problems with certain production systems (such as those involved in organic pig farming, i.e., grazing sows, low crop yields), can lead to a high level of leaching in some organic systems. Organic farming is faced with a need to expand and develop in line with increasing demands for organic food and growing environmental concerns. This requires closer attention to the goals, values and principles on which organic practices are based, and more research into the influence of organic farming on different aspects of the environment.

Energy utilization in crop and dairy production in organic and conventional livestock production systems

Abstract Searching for livestock production systems with a high energy utilization is of interest because of resource use and pollution aspects and because energy use is an indicator of the intensification of production processes. Due to interactions between crop and livestock enterprises and between levels of different input factors and their effects on yields, it is proposed to analyze agricultural energy utilization through system modelling of data from farm studies. Energy use in small grains, grass-clover and fodder beets registered in organic and conventional mixed dairy farms was analyzed and used together with crop yields in order to model energy prices on three Danish soil types. Conventional crop yields were higher but they also used more indirect energy with input factors, especially fertilizers. The conventional yields were not sufficiently higher to compensate for the extra use of energy compared with the organic crops. The organic crops had lower energy prices on all soil types, with the smallest difference on irrigated sandy soils. Sensitivity analyses were made for the effects of changes in irrigation and fertilizer levels. One conclusion was that better energy utilization in grain crops might be found at intermediate levels of fertilizer use, especially on irrigated soils. Actual farm diesel use was on average 47% higher than expected from standard values, suggesting that care should be taken when basing energetic analysis of farming methods on experimental data alone. On the same farms, the energy use in dairy production registered in organic and conventional mixed dairy farms was analyzed and used together with milk and meat yields in order to model energy prices for three different feeding strategies and two soil types. Conventional dairy production is more intensive with a greater feeding ration and a higher proportion of high-protein feed, but has also higher yields. The conventional yields were not sufficiently higher to compensate for the extra use of energy compared with the organic feeding ration. However, the lower energy price in organic dairy production is dependent on the composition of the feeding strategy. Substitution of 500 SFU of grain with grass pellets makes an ordinary organic feeding ration based on conventional crop production competable. In general, the crop energy price models can be used together with the dairy production to model the effects of different feeding and crop rotation strategies on the overall energy utilization in mixed dairy production systems.

Towards a systemic research methodology in agriculture: Rethinking the role of values in science

The recent drastic developmentof agriculture, together with the growingsocietal interest in agricultural practices andtheir consequences, pose a challenge toagricultural science. There is a need forrethinking the general methodology ofagricultural research. This paper takes somesteps towards developing a systemic researchmethodology that can meet this challenge – ageneral self-reflexive methodology that forms abasis for doing holistic or (with a betterterm) wholeness-oriented research and providesappropriate criteria of scientific quality.From a philosophy of research perspective,science is seen as an interactive learningprocess with both a cognitive and a socialcommunicative aspect. This means, first of all,that science plays a role in the world that itstudies. A science that influences its ownsubject area, such as agricultural science, isnamed a systemic science. From thisperspective, there is a need to reconsider therole of values in science. Science is notobjective in the sense of being value-free.Values play, and ought to play, an importantrole in science – not only in form ofconstitutive values such as the norms of goodscience, but also in the form of contextualvalues that enter into the very process ofscience. This goes against the traditionalcriterion of objectivity. Therefore, reflexive objectivity is suggested as a newcriterion for doing good science, along withthe criterion of relevance. Reflexiveobjectivity implies that the communication ofscience must include the cognitivecontext, which comprises the societal,intentional, and observational context. Inaccordance with this, the learning process ofsystemic research is shown as a self-reflexivecycle that incorporates both an involved actorstance and a detached observer stance. Theobserver stance forms the basis for scientificcommunication.To this point, a unitary view of science asa learning process is employed. A secondimportant perspective for a systemic researchmethodology is the relation between the actual,different, and often quite separate kinds ofscience. Cross-disciplinary research ishampered by the idea that reductive science ismore objective, and hence more scientific, thanthe less reductive sciences of complex subjectareas – and by the opposite idea thatreductive science is necessarilyreductionistic. Taking reflexive objectivity asa demarcator of good science, an inclusiveframework of science can be established. Theframework does not take the establisheddivision between natural, social, and humanscience as a primary distinction of science.The major distinction is made between theempirical and normative aspects of science,corresponding to two key cognitive interests.Two general methodological dimensions, thedegree of reduction of the research world andthe degree of involvement in the researchworld, are shown to span this framework. Theframework can form a basis fortransdisciplinary work by way of showing therelation between more and less reductive kindsof science and between more detached and moreinvolved kinds of science and exposing theabilities and limitations attendant on thesemethodological differences.

Global Development of Organic Agriculture: Challenges and Prospects

Preface: Modern agriculture and food systems, including organic agriculture, are undergoing a technological and structural modernization and are faced with a growing globalization. Organic agriculture (OA) can be seen as pionering efforts to create sustainable development based on other principles than mainstream agriculture. There are however large differences between the challenges connected to, on the one hand, modern farming and consumption in high-income countries and, on the other hand, smallholder farmers and resource-poor consumers in low-income countries. The point of departure is the increasing globalization and the production and trade of food and fodder and how this influences the role of OA. The main aim of this book is to provide an overview of the potential role and challenges of organic agriculture in this global perspective, as seen from different perspectives such as sustainability, food security and fair trade. Initially, the book provides an overall status of global trends in agriculture followed by discussions of sustainability, globalisation and the relative new concepts of ‘ecological justice’ and ‘political ecology’. Different views on economy and trade are furthermore discussed with a focus on ecological economics. Then, the status and possibilities of organic agriculture in developing countries are discussed, including problems of nutrient cycles and soil depletion plus issues on veterinary medicine. Furthermore, organic farming is related to the world food supply. The possibilities of knowledge exchange in organic agriculture are also evaluated and it is assessed how a large scale conversion to OA would impact on food security. Finally, prospects and challenges of organic farming in a globalized world are discussed in a synthesis chapter. Readers who seek first an overview and summary across the different chapters are recommended to start by reading the synthesis. The book springs from a so-called ‘knowledge synthesis’ initiated by The Danish Research Centre for Organic Food and Farming (DARCOF ) in January 2004 to provide an overview of the potential role of organic agriculture in a global perspective. In short, a knowledge synthesis analyses, discusses and synthesizes the existing knowledge on a subject not yet clarified and often disputed in relation to the main points of view. This work takes place in a group of experts from different fields that represent the different points of view on the subject. It is therefore important to include experts with different backgrounds and different perceptions of the subject. The work was initiated by five key questions: To which extent and under which circumstances: 1. Can organic production contribute to global food security? How? 2. Can organic production in developing countries contribute to a sustainable development? How? 3. Can organic certification protect natural resources, improve work conditions, etc.? How? 4. Can a fair global trade with organic products be realized? How? 5. Can organic research in high-income countries benefit organic agriculture in low-income countries? How? An international workshop, ‘Organic farming in a global perspective – globalisation, sustainable development and ecological justice’, was held in April 2004 in Copenhagen to provide inputs to the knowledge synthesis, discuss the issue and clarify ambiguous concepts. Experts from USA, Sweden, Austria, The Netherlands and Denmark were invited to give presentations on the international workshop. On the basis of presentations, discussions and group work at the workshop the outline of this book was laid down and the Danish and international experts started preparing the chapters. The knowledge synthesis on organic agriculture in a global perspective was performed by a group of Danish experts from a wide range of relevant fields in cooperation with international experts (see list of contributors). A website was established to communicate background material and working papers, and facilitate critical comments from other participants. Thus all chapters have been improved from reviews made by other experts, whom we wish to thank here. DARCOF wishes to thank all contributors to the book; their efforts are most gratefully acknowledged. Head of DARCOF, Erik Steen Kristensen August 2005

Estimated N leaching losses for organic and conventional farming in Denmark

The impact of organic compared to conventional farming practices on N leaching loss was studied for Danish mixed dairy and arable farms using an N balance approach based on representative data. On mixed dairy farms a simple N balance method was used to estimate N surplus and N leaching loss. On arable farms the simple N balance method was unreliable due to changes in the soil N pool. Consequently, the FASSET simulation model was used to estimate N surplus, N leaching loss and the changes in the soil N pool. The study found a lower N leaching loss from organic than conventional mixed dairy farms, primarily due to lower N inputs. On organic arable farms the soil N pool was increasing over years but the N leaching loss was comparable to conventional arable farms. The soil N pool was primarily increased by organic farming practices and incorporation of straw. The highest increase in the soil N pool was seen on soils with a low level of soil organic matter. The level of N leaching loss was dependent on soil type, the use of catch crops and the level of soil organic matter, whereas incorporation of straw had a minor effect. N leaching was highest on sandy soils with a high level of soil organic matter and no catch crops. The study stresses the importance of using representative data of organic and conventional farming practices in comparative studies of N leaching loss.

Organic agriculture and ecological justice: ethics and practice

Ecological justice is a challenging concept in relation to the current development of agriculture, because it positions social and ecological interests against market liberalism and economic growth. Ecological justice concerns fairness with regard to the common environment based on the idea that environments are fundamen-tally shared. This chapter investigates the role that ecological justice may have in relation to the global challenges of organic agriculture. We perform a philoso-phical analysis of the ethics of ecological justice and the relation to sustainability and globalization. On this basis, we discuss the challenges that this important concept poses to organic agriculture and how it can be put into organic practice. Organic agriculture is in an advanced position with regard to ecological justice, since it aims to interact in a positive way with the environment. But ecological justice also poses significant challenges to organic agriculture. The three main challenges are: the commodification of hitherto commons; external environ-mental and social costs that are not accounted for in the market; and growing distances in form of distant trade and ownership in the organic food systems. We conclude that the ideas of ecological justice can be promoted in three ways by means of organic agriculture: by implementing ecological justice more fully in the organic certification standards through incorporating a measure of ‘nearness’ and developing a fair organic trade; by promoting non-certified agriculture based on the organic principles as an alternative development strategy for local sustain-able communities and food security; and by organic agriculture serving as an alternative example for the broader implementation of ecological justice in agri-culture and society.

Sustainable veterinary medical practices in organic farming: a global perspective

Livestock production systems are the focus area of this chapter, where the prospects for an organic approach to veterinary treatment and disease control are discussed in particular. We have taken a case presentation approach to this topic by selecting some widely different farming systems to represent different challenges and opportunities for using and reducing veterinary medical products, as well as developing disease prevention and health-promoting strategies that meet the ideas of organic animal husbandry. The major challenge in organic livestock production systems is to ‘think the organic principles’ into a wide range of diverse systems under a wide range of circumstances and conditions, including systems which are not certified as ‘organic’ at the moment. We recommend that developing organic animal husbandry at all times requires a thorough analysis of the problems, opportunities and existing knowledge. All organic systems should allow animals to perform their natural behaviour as far as possible, and naturalness is an important principle also of organic livestock farming. We consider various organic approaches to breeding for disease resistance (use of indigenous breeds), the role of vaccination, traditional medicine and alternatives to biomedical treatments and other approaches to disease management. We have given particular emphasis on the need for a reduction in the use of antimicrobial veterinary drugs, as we can see some potential for a reduction of dependency on veterinary medicine, and – when successful – the associated problems of drug residues and resistance. The potential for the control of vector-borne diseases in the development of organic systems in tropical areas is also included in the discussion. In North Europe and large areas of the north-western world, production diseases related to high yield and performance dominate, whilst in the tropical regions the risk of infectious and epidemic diseases is a greater concern. The development of organic farming must always be careful not to threaten local and regional disease control programmes, particularly where the diseases are zoonotic in nature, are highly infectious or are of widespread economic importance, e.g Rinderpest and foot and mouth disease. According to experiences from the USA and Europe, effectiveness of organic approaches to health management are not always immediate. Whole communities can benefit from implementing and organizing an organic approach to disease prevention, e.g. in the case of communal grazing systems.

Possibilities for closing the urban rural nutrient cycles

This Chapter discuss the potential of organic farming for contributing to sustainable development, mainly in lw-income countries, by integrating urban settlements with rual communities, through the recycling of domestic and household waste.

Researching Alternative, Sustainable Agricultural Systems. A Modeling Approach by Examples from Denmark

In recent decades agriculture has undergone rapid technological and structural changes. This development has raised concerns about the sustainability of modern agriculture and motivated an interest in alternative and, perhaps, more sustainable agricultural systems. Agriculture involves both ecological and social systems, and research in agricultural systems therefore faces the dual challenge of understanding complex agro-ecosystem interactions and handling the involvement of human actors, their practices and preferences. A major survey to assess the consequences of phasing out pesticide use in Denmark is presented as an example of a study confronting this dual challenge. The survey included the modelling of a total organic conversion of Danish agriculture, and this work is used to illustrate significant methodological issues in agricultural systems research. The removal of pesticides implies radical changes, and although the models implemented in the survey were based on all the available scientific knowledge, the work revealed insufficient knowledge in many areas. This, in turn, made it clear that the modelling could not be done without an inquiry into the different values involved. In particular, different conceptions of precaution and sustainability played major roles in the work.