Esben Astrup Kristensen

The legacy of pesticide pollution: An overlooked factor in current risk assessments of freshwater systems

We revealed a history of legacy pesticides in water and sediment samples from 19 small streams across an agricultural landscape. Dominant legacy compounds included organochlorine pesticides, such as DDT and lindane, the organophosphate chlorpyrifos and triazine herbicides such as terbutylazine and simazine which have long been banned in the EU. The highest concentrations of legacy pesticides were found in streams draining catchments with a large proportion of arable farmland suggesting that they originated from past agricultural applications. The sum of toxic units (SumTUD.magna) based on storm water samples from agriculturally impacted streams was significantly higher when legacy pesticides were included compared to when they were omitted. Legacy pesticides did not significantly change the predicted toxicity of water samples to algae or fish. However, pesticide concentrations in bed sediment and suspended sediment samples exceeded safety thresholds in 50% of the samples and the average contribution of legacy pesticides to the SumTUC.riparius was >90%. Our results suggest that legacy pesticides can be highly significant contributors to the current toxic exposure of stream biota, especially macroinvertebrate communities, and that those communities were primarily exposed to legacy pesticides via the sediment. Additionally, our results suggest that neglecting legacy pesticides in the risk assessment of pesticides in streams may severely underestimate the risk of ecological effects.

Pyrethroid effects on freshwater invertebrates: A meta-analysis of pulse exposures

Pyrethroids are widely used insecticides that may seriously harm aquatic organisms. Being strongly hydrophobic, pyrethroids in solution occur only in short pulses but may be retained in sediments for longer periods. Consequently, most studies consider the chronic exposure of sediment dwelling organisms. We collected data from 16 studies to determine effect thresholds for stream macroinvertebrates exposed to short pyrethroid pulses evaluating lethal and sublethal ecologically relevant endpoints. Dose-response models showed EC50 for lethality, functional and behavioural endpoints down to 1/100, 1/100 and 1/1000 of the 48 h LC50 for Daphnia magna, respectively. The results indicate that the overall sensitivity of stream macroinvertebrates to pyrethroids may be higher than previously believed. This review shows the relevance of incorporating data on sublethal endpoints and appropriate post-exposure observation periods in future studies. The current risk assessment procedures and the higher tier approach are discussed in the light of our results.

Pesticide impacts on predator–prey interactions across two levels of organisation

In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effects of a short pulse exposure of the pyrethroid lambda-cyhalothrin (LC) on the predator and anti-predator behaviour of the same species; Gammarus pulex. Predator behaviour, at the level of the individual, was studied in indoor microcosms using video tracking equipment during simultaneous exposure of the predator (G. pulex) and its prey (Leuctra nigra) during 90 min exposure of 1, 6.6 or 62.1 ngL(-1) LC. During an initial 30 min of exposure, the predator and prey organisms were maintained physically separated, and the actual interaction was studied through the subsequent 60 min of exposure. The anti-predator behaviour of G. pulex (drift suppression in response to the presence of brown trout) was studied in outdoor stream channels during a 90 min pulse exposure to LC (7.4 or 79.5 ngL(-1)) with, or without, brown trout. Based on survival curves for L. nigra we found that the mortality rate for L. nigra significantly decreased during exposure to 6.6 and 62.1 ngL(-1) LC (P<0.05 and P<0.001, respectively). We found no significant effects suggesting that G. pulex was repelled by contaminated prey items (P>0.05). We found that the exposure of G. pulex to 7.4 and 79.5 ngL(-1) LC significantly increased drift (from ∼0% to ∼100% in both treatments; P<0.001) independent of the presence of brown trout (P<0.05). In other words, the natural anti-predator behaviour of G. pulex was overruled by the stress response to LC exposure increasing G. pulex predation risk from drift feeding brown trouts. Our results show that the anti-predator and predator behaviour of G. pulex were significantly changed during exposure to very low and environmentally realistic LC concentrations and exposure duration. The potential implications for the field scenario are discussed.

Fast reaction of macroinvertebrate communities to stagnation and drought in streams with contrasting nutrient availability

Abstract Small, permanent streams are at risk of becoming stagnant or intermittent because of hydrological changes induced by climate change, which can be further intensified by anthropogenic disruptions, such as water abstraction. Macroinvertebrate communities are vulnerable to such changes because they depend on stream hydromorphological regime. We conducted a fully controlled field experiment in 1 impacted and 1 unimpacted Danish lowland stream with contrasting nutrient availability. We used dams and diversions to create short-term (2–10 wk) stagnant and drought conditions, and we installed pools in the drought area to test their value as refugia for benthic macroinvertebrates. After 2 wk, community composition had changed significantly in all treatments in both streams. The abundance of Chironomidae increased and the abundance of mayflies (Baetis rhodani), stoneflies (Amphinemura standfussi, Leuctra nigra), caddisflies (Silo pallipes, Sericostoma personatum), the amphipod Gammarus pulex, and some Diptera taxa (Simuliidae, Dicranota sp.) decreased relative to the control. Diversity and total abundance did not change in the stagnant or drought treatments, so we do not consider these variables sensitive to effects of short-term flow reductions. Diversity decreased (unimpacted stream) or was not affected (impacted stream) in pools relative to the drought treatment. Thus, pools did not act as a substantial refugium for macroinvertebrates under extreme low-flow conditions. Current velocity and amount of deposited organic material explained most of the change in the macroinvertebrate community. Nutrient availability did not influence the response of the macroinvertebrate community to the treatments, probably because the physicochemical changes were exacerbated in the impacted stream and outweighed the expected higher resilience of this community. Our results clearly demonstrate that short-term stagnation and droughts in lowland streams can cause strong alteration of species composition.

Trait Characteristics Determine Pyrethroid Sensitivity in Nonstandard Test Species of Freshwater Macroinvertebrates: A Reality Check

We exposed 34 species of stream macroinvertebrates, representing 29 families, to a 90 min pulse of the pyrethroid λ-cyhalothrin. For 28 of these species, no pyrethroid ecotoxicity data exist. We recorded mortality rates 6 days post-exposure, and the behavioral response to pyrethroid exposure was recorded using automated video tracking. Most arthropod species showed mortality responses to the exposure concentrations (0.01-10 μg L(-1)), whereas nonarthropod species remained unaffected. LC50 varied by at least a factor of 1000 among arthropod species, even within the same family. This variation could not be predicted using ecotoxicity data from closely related species, nor using species-specific indicator values from traditional ecological quality indices. Moreover, LC50 was not significantly correlated to effect thresholds for behavioral responses. Importantly, however, the measured surface area-weight ratio and the preference for coarse substrates significantly influenced the LC50 for arthropod species, with the combination of small individuals and strong preference for coarse substrates indicating higher pyrethroid sensitivity. Our study highlights that existing pesticide ecotoxicity data should be extrapolated to untested species with caution and that actual body size (not maximum potential body size, as is usually available in traits databases) and habitat preference are central parameters determining species sensitivities to pyrethroids.

Impacts of habitat degradation and stream spatial location on biodiversity in a disturbed riverine landscape

Abstract The ongoing degradation of freshwater habitat quality and subsequent losses of biodiversity is alarming. One key to successful freshwater management is to understand how different scale-dependent diversity components (i.e. γ-, α- and β-diversity) change along present-day anthropogenic impact gradients. We used macrophyte, fish and macroinvertebrate data from Danish lowland streams to investigate whether (1) high connectivity in reaches situated in lower parts of the stream network (downstream sites) generates high α-diversity, while dispersal limitation and high habitat heterogeneity across the more isolated upper reaches (headwater sites) generate high β-diversity, (2) γ-, α- and β- diversity decrease with increasing hydromorphological impact and (3) high connectivity in downstream reaches buffers against impacts on biodiversity. Results showed that α-diversity was higher in downstream sites, while headwaters did not exhibit greater β-diversity. We observed a significant but relatively small decline in α-diversity with increasing hydromorphological impact, while β-diversity changed more unpredictably along the gradient. There was no clear mitigating effect in downstream reaches as the reduction in diversity from low to high impacted sites was similar between upper and lower reaches. We suggest that the results, which generally contradicted our predictions, partly reflect the intense historic and present land use in the region leading to an isolation of available source communities and a diminished regional species pool. The importance of having a landscape perspective in conservation management in highly impacted regions is emphasised because it is a prerequisite for recolonisation and population stability over time.

Riparian forest modifies fuelling sources for stream food webs but not food-chain length in lowland streams of Denmark

Several studies have shown that the origin of carbon fuelling food webs in streams depends on riparian cover type. In forested stream sites allochthonous resources fuel food webs, whereas autochthonous resources support biomass in grassland (open-canopy) stream sites. However, some studies suggest that autochthonous carbon (of highest quality) is preferentially assimilated regardless of riparian cover and that the food-chain length (FCL) may be larger in grassland than in forested sites. We used stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen in adjacent grassland and forested reaches to compare the contribution of autochthonous vs. allochthonous resources to the biomass of the whole macroinvertebrate assemblage and to the most abundant taxa. Moreover, we compared the FCL between forested and grassland sites by estimating the trophic position of brown trout, Salmo trutta. Autochthonous support to macroinvertebrate biomass was higher in grassland than in forested sites, often changing from a dominantly autochthonous to an allochthonous-generated biomass from grassland to forested. This held true for the whole macroinvertebrate assemblage and for specific species. FCL remained similar between reach types. Our study suggests that autochthonous resources are assimilated to a higher extent when their availability increases with canopy openness but allochthonous carbon sustain macroinvertebrate biomass in forested reaches.

Riparian forest as a management tool for moderating future thermal conditions of lowland temperate streams

Abstract Predictions of future climate suggest that stream water temperature will increase in temperate lowland areas. Streams without riparian forest will be particularly prone to elevated temperature. Planting riparian forest is a potential mitigation measure to reduce water temperature for the benefit of stream organisms; however, no studies have yet determined the combination of shading (% canopy cover) and stream length required to obtain a timely temperature decrease. We measured the temperature in 5 small Danish lowland streams from June 2010 to July 2011, all showing a sharp transition between an upstream open reach and a downstream forested reach. At each site we also measured canopy cover and a range of physical variables characterising the stream reach to analyse differences in mean daily temperature and amplitude per month among forested and open reaches, annual temperature regimes, and the influence of physical conditions on temperature changes. In July, water temperature increased over the entire length of the open reach in 3 of the 5 streams, reaching temperatures higher than the incipient lethal limit for brown trout (Salmo trutta). In 4 of the streams, July temperature decreased within 100 m of the stream entering the forested area, and in 3 of our study streams the temperature continued to decrease within the forested reach, without reaching a plateau. Daily temperature variation was greater in the open reaches than the forest reaches. Regression analysis indicated that temperature changes along the forested reach in July were significantly related to canopy cover, width:depth ratio, and temperature of the water entering the forested reach. We conclude that even relatively short stretches (100-500 m) of forest alongside streams may reduce water temperature and so combat the negative effects of temperature increases on stream ecology. Although forestation can be a useful mitigation measure, many lowland streams are historically rich in macrophytes, which are important hotspots for fish and macroinvertebrates. If managers leave open reaches interspersed in the riparian canopy, loss of diversity provided by these macrophyte beds could be diminished while still leaving cooler water refugia.

Comparison of active and passive stream restoration: effects on the physical habitats

Modification and channelization of streams and rivers have been conducted extensively throughout the world during the past century. Subsequently, much effort has been directed at re-creating the lost habitats and thereby improving living conditions for aquatic organisms. However, as restoration methods are plentiful, it is difficult to determine which one to use to get the anticipated result. The aim of this study was to compare two commonly used methods in small Danish streams to improve the physical condition: re-meandering and passive restoration through cease of maintenance. Our investigation included measurement of the physical conditions in 29 stream reaches covering four different groups: (1) re-meandered streams, (2) LDC streams (the least disturbed streams available), (3) passively restored streams (>10 years stop of maintenance) and (4) channelized and non-restored streams. The in-stream habitats were compared through analysis of the measured physical parameters and by applying a habitat model. We found that re-meandering is a more effective way of re-creating near-natural physical conditions in small streams compared to passive restoration. This is probably due to the limited energy in small streams which restricts re-shaping of the stream channel. However, based on habitat suitability modelling, the change to the physical condition did not translate into improved habitat suitability for young of the year brown trout highlighting the value of using several methods when evaluating restoration success.

Baseline identification in stable-isotope studies of temperate lotic systems and implications for calculated trophic positions

Stable-isotope analysis is widely used in aquatic ecosystem studies to evaluate trophic structure and resource dynamics. Because δ15N values vary in freshwater systems, e.g., reflecting variations in land use, suitable baseline indicators must be specified. Few investigators have identified specific baseline organisms based on thorough and methodical screening. We screened for baseline organisms in temperate lotic waters based on 4 criteria: 1) baseline organisms should be easy to collect, 2) within-site variation in δ15N levels should be low, 3) δ15N should reflect land use, and 4) trophic position (TP) of consumers calculated from the baseline should be independent of system-specific δ15N variability as long as no systematic change in food consumption occurred. We investigated individual taxa and bulked groups representing different feeding modes as baselines. We found that Simuliidae, a sestonic filter feeder, fulfilled all criteria. Furthermore, TP estimates of 2 common fishes that were based on the Simuliidae or grouped filterers as baselines were the only estimates in our study that were independent of landuse changes. In addition, the diet of these fishes did not change across land use as based on stable-isotope mixing-model analysis. Simuliidae also had the lowest within-site variation, i.e., the lowest trophic level range, probably a result of uniform feeding behavior. Therefore, Simuliidae and grouped filterers could be suitable baseline indicators in future studies. We recommend minimizing δ15N variability in and among systems because the precise, complex choice, timing, or proportions of food sources consumed cannot be mimicked. We also promote combining TP estimation and mixing-model analyses as a strong tool in studies of stream food webs.