G. Fornetti

Underwater three-dimensional imaging with an amplitude-modulated laser radar at a 405 nm wavelength

We report the results of underwater imaging with an amplitude-modulated single-mode laser beam and miniaturized piezoactuator-based scanning system. The basic elements of the device are a diode laser source at 405 nm with digital amplitude modulation and a microscanning system realized with a small-aperture aspheric lens mounted on a pair of piezoelectric translators driven by sawtooth waveforms. The system has been designed to be a low-weight and rugged imaging device suitable to operate at medium range (approximately 10 m) in clear seawater as also demonstrated by computer simulation of layout performance. In the controlled laboratory conditions a submillimeter range accuracy has been obtained at a laser amplitude modulation frequency of 36.7 MHz.

Remote Colorimetric and Structural Diagnosis by RGB-ITR Color Laser Scanner Prototype

Since several years ENEAs Artificial Vision laboratory is involved in electrooptics systems development. In the last period the efforts are concentrated on cultural heritage remote diagnosis, trying to develop instruments suitable for multiple purposes concerning restoration, cataloguing, and education. Since last five years a new 3D (three-dimensional) laser scanner prototype (RGB-ITR) based on three amplitude-modulated monochromatic laser sources mixed together by dichroic filters is under development. Five pieces of information per each sampled point (pixel) are collected by three avalanche photodiodes and dedicated electronics: two distances and three target reflectivity signals for each channel, red, green, and blue. The combination of these pieces of information opens new scenarios for remote colorimetry allowing diagnoses without the use of scaffolds. Results concerning the use of RGB-ITR as colorimeter are presented.

Techniques for effective optical noise rejection in amplitude-modulated laser optical radars for underwater three-dimensional imaging

Amplitude-modulated (AM) laser imaging is a promising technology for the production of accurate three-dimensional (3D) images of submerged scenes. The main challenge is that radiation scattered off water gives rise to a disturbing signal (optical noise) that degrades more and more the quality of 3D images for increasing turbidity. In this paper, we summarize a series of theoretical findings, that provide valuable hints for the development of experimental methods enabling a partial rejection of optical noise in underwater imaging systems. In order to assess the effectiveness of these methods, which range from modulation/demodulation to polarimetry, we carried out a series of experiments by using the laboratory prototype of an AM 3D imager ( = 405 nm) for marine archaeology surveys, in course of realization at the ENEA Artificial Vision Laboratory (Frascati, Rome). The obtained results confirm the validity of the proposed methods for optical noise rejection.

Experimental evidence of signal-optical noise interferencelike effect in underwater amplitude-modulated laser optical radar systems.

We report experimental evidence that in an amplitude-modulated laser optical radar system for underwater 3D imaging the observed contrast oscillations as a function of the modulation frequency originate from an interference-like effect between target signal VT and water backscattered radiation VW. The demonstration relies on the ability to perform a direct measurement of VW in a 25 m long test tank. The proposed data processing method enables one to remove the contribution of water backscattering from the detected signal and drastically reduce signal fluctuations due to the medium. Experiments also confirm the possibility to improve the signal to optical noise ratio and contrast by increasing the modulation frequency.

Laser in vessel-viewing system for nuclear fusion reactors

An amplitude modulated laser radar has been developed by ENEA (Italian Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Environment) for periodic in-vessel inspection in large fusion machines. Its overall optical design has been developed taking into account the extremely high radiation levels and operating temperatures foreseen in large European fusion machines such as JET (Joint European Torus) and ITER (International Thermo- nuclear Experimental Reactor). The viewing system is based on a transceiving optical radar using a RF modulated single mode 840 nm wavelength laser beam. The sounding beam is transmitted through a coherent optical fiber and a focusing optic to the inner part of the nuclear reactor vessel by a stainless steel probe on the tip of which a suitable scanning silica prism steers the laser beam along a linear raster spanning a -90 degree(s) to +60 degree(s) in elevation and 360 degree(s) in azimuth for a complete mapping of the vessel itself. All the electronics, including the laser source, avalanche photodiode and all the active components are located outside the bioshield, while passive components (receiving optics, transmitting collimator, fiber optics), located in the torus hall, are made of fused silica so that the overall laser radar is radiation resistant. The signal is acquired, the raster lines being synchronized with the aid of optical encoders linked to the scanning prism, thus yielding a TV like image. Preliminary results have been obtained scanning large sceneries including several real targets having different backscattering properties, colors and surface reflectivity ranging over several decades to simulate the expected dynamic range of the video signals incoming from the vessel.

Two‐wavelength infrared heterodyne transceiver with a continuous phase tracking system

We describe the performance of an optical heterodyne sensor with a two‐wavelength coherent infrared beam, which is used to detect the motion of remote targets in a real environment with an unambiguous sensing of the instantaneous direction along the line‐of‐sight propagation path. The initial phase condition of maximum sensitivity of the transceiver is stabilized and held by an active feedback system which drives the phase of the optical field of the local oscillator. The experimental results show that this feedback is particularly useful in reducing the noise generated by low‐frequency environmental disturbances, leaving the signal unaffected when the respective frequency ranges are separated. Under certain circumstances, the signal can be recovered from the noise by the linearizing properties of the phase tracking on the interferometer response. The measurements reported show that the two‐wavelength infrared heterodyne transceiver generates signals which replicate the target vibration exactly up to ampl...

Amplitude-modulated laser range-finder for 3D imaging with multi- sensor data integration capabilities

A high performance Amplitude Modulated Laser Rangefinder (AM-LR) is presented, aimed at accurately reconstructing 3D digital models of real targets, either single objects or complex scenes. The scanning system enables to sweep the sounding beam either linearly across the object or circularly around it, by placing the object on a controlled rotating platform. Both phase shift and amplitude of the modulating wave of back-scattered light are collected and processed, resulting respectively in an accurate range image and a shade-free, high resolution, photographic-like intensity image. The best performances obtained in terms of range resolution are ~100 μm. Resolution itself can be made to depend mainly on the laser modulation frequency, provided that the power of the backscattered light reaching the detector is at least a few nW. 3D models are reconstructed from sampled points by using specifically developed software tools, optimized so as to take advantage of the system peculiarities. Special procedures have also been implemented to perform precise matching of data acquired independently with different sensors (LIF laser sensors, thermographic cameras, etc.) onto the 3D models generated using the AM-LR. The system has been used to scan different types of real surfaces (stone, wood, alloys, bones) and ca be applied in various fields, ranging from industrial machining to medical diagnostics, vision in hostile environments cultural heritage conservation and restoration. The relevance of this technology in cultural heritage applications is discussed in special detail, by providing results obtained in different campaigns with an emphasis on the systems multi-sensor data integration capabilities.

Polarimetry as tool to improve phase measurement in an amplitude modulated laser for submarine archaeological sites inspection

The propagation of polarized laser beams in turbid water is a subject of relevant interest in the field of underwater quantitative visualization with active sensors like amplitude modulated laser systems. In such devices, target range determination is based on the measurement of the phase difference ΔΦ between the fraction of the amplitude modulated laser beam reflected by the target and a reference signal. As water turbidity increases, the laser radiation backscattered from the water column shined by the sounding laser beam gives rise to an optical background with detrimental effects on the accuracy of range measurement. In this paper we analyze the possibility to increase the apparatus accuracy with a polarimetric technique based on the adoption of polarized laser radiation and polarization selective detection scheme for improving the underwater imaging of real scenes (e.g. archaeological sites). The method fully takes advantages of the different polarization properties of the laser radiation backscattered by turbid water and of the Lambertian component diffusively reflected by the target as described by the associated Mueller matrices. Measurements have been performed by adopting both a co-polarized and cross-polarized detection scheme with linearly and circularly polarized laser radiation. Various degrees of turbidity were realized by adding, as diffusive element, skim milk to water in order to obtain different scattering conditions. The effect of the transition from Rayleigh to Mie scattering regime on phase accuracy determination has been investigated together with the role played by high order scatterings as the medium approaches the optical thickness condition.

Improvement in underwater phase measurement of an amplitude-modulated laser beam by polarimetric techniques

The phase of the amplitude-modulated radiation reflected by a Lambertian target immersed in water was measured by using a linearly and circularly polarized sounding laser beam. Different values of the water extinction coefficient in the range of 0.06 - 2 m(-1) were realized by adding skim milk as a scattering element. It is shown that very efficient rejection of optical noise, resulting in reliable phase measurements, is accomplished with a cross-polarized and copolarized detection scheme for linear and circular polarization, respectively. The experiment demonstrates that phase measurements are very sensitive to optical noise suppression and that, as far as single scattering is the main involved mechanism, significant improvements can be achieved by adopting a polarization control on both the transmitter and the receiver stages of the apparatus.

High-resolution laser radar for 3D imaging in artwork cataloging, reproduction, and restoration

A high resolution Amplitude Modulated Laser Radar (AM-LR) sensor has recently been developed, aimed at accurately reconstructing 3D digital models of real targets, either single objects or complex scenes. The sensor sounding beam can be swept linearly across the object or circularly around it, by placing the object on a controlled rotating platform, enabling to obtain respectively linear and cylindrical range maps. Both amplitude and phase shift of the modulating wave of back-scattered light are collected and processed, providing respectively a shade-free, high resolution, photographic-like picture and accurate range data in the form of a range image. The resolution of range measurements depends mainly on the laser modulation frequency, provided that the power of the backscattered light reaching the detector is at least a few nW (current best performances are ~100 µm). The complete object surface can be reconstructed from the sampled points by using specifically developed software tools. The system has been successfully applied to scan different types of real surfaces (stone, wood, alloys, bones), with relevant applications in different fields, ranging from industrial machining to medical diagnostics, to vision in hostile environments. Examples of artwork reconstructed models (pottery, marble statues) are presented and the relevance of this technology for reverse engineering applied to cultural heritage conservation and restoration are discussed. Final 3D models can be passed to numeric control machines for rapid-prototyping, exported in standard formats for CAD/CAM purposes and made available on the Internet by adopting a virtual museum paradigm, thus possibly enabling specialists to perform remote inspections on high resolution digital reproductions of hardly accessible masterpieces.