Gary L. Thompson

Double-Layer Mediated Electromechanical Response of Amyloid Fibrils in Liquid Environment

Harnessing electrical bias-induced mechanical motion on the nanometer and molecular scale is a critical step toward understanding the fundamental mechanisms of redox processes and implementation of molecular electromechanical machines. Probing these phenomena in biomolecular systems requires electromechanical measurements be performed in liquid environments. Here we demonstrate the use of band excitation piezoresponse force microscopy for probing electromechanical coupling in amyloid fibrils. The approaches for separating the elastic and electromechanical contributions based on functional fits and multivariate statistical analysis are presented. We demonstrate that in the bulk of the fibril the electromechanical response is dominated by double-layer effects (consistent with shear piezoelectricity of biomolecules), while a number of electromechanically active hot spots possibly related to structural defects are observed.

600 ns pulse electric field-induced phosphatidylinositol4,5-bisphosphate depletion

The interaction between nsPEF-induced Ca(2+) release and nsPEF-induced phosphatidylinositol4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) hydrolysis is not well understood. To better understand this interrelation we monitored intracellular calcium changes, in cells loaded with Calcium Green-1 AM, and generation of PIP2 hydrolysis byproducts (inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG)) in cells transfected with one of two fluorescent reporter genes: PLCδ-PH-EGFP or GFP-C1-PKCγ-C1a. The percentage fluorescence differences (ΔF %) after exposures were determined. Upon nsPEF impact, we found that in the absence of extracellular Ca(2+) the population of IP3 liberated during nsPEF exposure (ΔF 6%±3, n=22), is diminished compared to the response in the presence of calcium (ΔF 84%±15, n=20). The production of DAG in the absence of extracellular Ca(2+) (ΔF 29%±5, n=25), as well as in cells exposed to thapsigargin (ΔF 40%±12, n=15), was not statistically different from cells exposed in the presence of extracellular calcium (ΔF 22±6%, n=18). This finding suggests that the change in intracellular calcium concentration is not solely driving the observed response. Interestingly, the DAG produced in the absence of Ca(2+) is the strongest near the membrane regions facing the electrodes, whereas the presence of extracellular Ca(2+) leads to a whole cell response. The reported observations of Ca(2+) dynamics combined with IP3 and DAG production suggest that nsPEF may cause a direct effect on the phospholipids within the plasma membrane.

Calcium influx affects intracellular transport and membrane repair following nanosecond pulsed electric field exposure

Abstract. The cellular response to subtle membrane damage following exposure to nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEF) is not well understood. Recent work has shown that when cells are exposed to nsPEF, ion permeable nanopores (<2  nm) are created in the plasma membrane in contrast to larger diameter pores (>2  nm) created by longer micro- and millisecond duration pulses. Nanoporation of the plasma membrane by nsPEF has been shown to cause a transient increase in intracellular calcium concentration within milliseconds after exposure. Our research objective is to determine the impact of nsPEF on calcium-dependent structural and repair systems in mammalian cells. Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cells were exposed in the presence and absence of calcium ions in the outside buffer to either 1 or 20, 600-ns duration electrical pulses at 16.2  kV/cm, and pore size was determined using propidium iodide and calcium green. Membrane organization was observed with morphological changes and increases in FM1-43 fluorescence. Migration of lysosomes, implicated in membrane repair, was followed using confocal microscopy of red fluorescent protein-tagged LAMP1. Microtubule structure was imaged using mEmerald-tubulin. We found that at high 600-ns PEF dosage, calcium-induced membrane restructuring and microtubule depolymerization coincide with interruption of membrane repair via lysosomal exocytosis.

nsPEF-induced PIP2 Depletion, PLC Activity and Actin Cytoskeletal Cortex Remodeling Are Responsible for Post-exposure Cellular Swelling and Blebbing

Cell swelling and blebbing has been commonly observed following nanosecond pulsed electric field (nsPEF) exposure. The hypothesized origin of these effects is nanoporation of the plasma membrane (PM) followed by transmembrane diffusion of extracellular fluid and disassembly of cortical actin structures. This investigation will provide evidence that shows passive movement of fluid into the cell through nanopores and increase of intracellular osmotic pressure are not solely responsible for this observed phenomena. We demonstrate that phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) depletion and hydrolysis are critical steps in the chain reaction leading to cellular blebbing and swelling. PIP2 is heavily involved in osmoregulation by modulation of ion channels and also serves as an intracellular membrane anchor to cortical actin and phospholipase C (PLC). Given the rather critical role that PIP2 depletion appears to play in the response of cells to nsPEF exposure, it remains unclear how its downstream effects and, specifically, ion channel regulation may contribute to cellular swelling, blebbing, and unknown mechanisms of the lasting “permeabilization” of the PM.

Nonlinear imaging of lipid membrane alterations elicited by nanosecond pulsed electric fields

Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) imaging is a useful tool for examining the structure of interfaces between bulk materials. Recently, this technique was applied to detecting subtle perturbations in the structure of cellular membranes following nanosecond pulsed electric field (nsPEF) exposure. Monitoring the cell’s outer membrane as it is exposed to nsPEF via SHG has demonstrated that nanoporation is likely the root cause for size-specific, increased cytoplasmic membrane permeabilization. It is theorized that the area of the membrane covered by these pores is tied to pulse intensity or duration. The extent of this effect along the cell’s surface, however, has never been measured due to its temporal brevity and minute pore size. By enhancing the SHG technique developed and elucidated previously, we are able to obtain this information. Further, we vary the pulse width and amplitude of the applied stimulus to explore the mechanical changes of the membrane at various sites around the cell. By using this unique SHG imaging technique to directly visualize the change in order of phospholipids within the membrane, we are able to better understand the complex response of living cells to electric pulses.

Nonlinear imaging techniques for the observation of cell membrane perturbation due to pulsed electric field exposure

Nonlinear optical probes, especially those involving second harmonic generation (SHG), have proven useful as sensors for near-instantaneous detection of alterations to orientation or energetics within a substance. This has been exploited to some success for observing conformational changes in proteins. SHG probes, therefore, hold promise for reporting rapid and minute changes in lipid membranes. In this report, one of these probes is employed in this regard, using nanosecond electric pulses (nsEPs) as a vehicle for instigating subtle membrane perturbations. The result provides a useful tool and methodology for the observation of minute membrane perturbation, while also providing meaningful information on the phenomenon of electropermeabilization due to nsEP. The SHG probe Di- 4-ANEPPDHQ is used in conjunction with a tuned optical setup to demonstrate nanoporation preferential to one hemisphere, or pole, of the cell given a single square shaped pulse. The results also confirm a correlation of pulse width to the amount of poration. Furthermore, the polarity of this event and the membrane physics of both hemispheres, the poles facing either electrode, were tested using bipolar pulses consisting of two pulses of opposite polarity. The experiment corroborates findings by other researchers that these types of pulses are less effective in causing repairable damage to the lipid membrane of cells.