Gavin Blackwell

High intensity interval training in a real world setting: a randomized controlled feasibility study in overweight inactive adults, measuring change in maximal oxygen uptake.

Background In research clinic settings, overweight adults undertaking HIIT (high intensity interval training) improve their fitness as effectively as those undertaking conventional walking programs but can do so within a shorter time spent exercising. We undertook a randomized controlled feasibility (pilot) study aimed at extending HIIT into a real world setting by recruiting overweight/obese, inactive adults into a group based activity program, held in a community park. Methods Participants were allocated into one of three groups. The two interventions, aerobic interval training and maximal volitional interval training, were compared with an active control group undertaking walking based exercise. Supervised group sessions (36 per intervention) were held outdoors. Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured using VO2max (maximal oxygen uptake, results expressed in ml/min/kg), before and after the 12 week interventions. Results On ITT (intention to treat) analyses, baseline (N = 49) and exit (N = 39) O2 was 25.3±4.5 and 25.3±3.9, respectively. Participant allocation and baseline/exit VO2max by group was as follows: Aerobic interval training N =  16, 24.2±4.8/25.6±4.8; maximal volitional interval training N = 16, 25.0±2.8/25.2±3.4; walking N = 17, 26.5±5.3/25.2±3.6. The post intervention change in VO2max was +1.01 in the aerobic interval training, −0.06 in the maximal volitional interval training and −1.03 in the walking subgroups. The aerobic interval training subgroup increased VO2max compared to walking (p = 0.03). The actual (observed, rather than prescribed) time spent exercising (minutes per week, ITT analysis) was 74 for aerobic interval training, 45 for maximal volitional interval training and 116 for walking (p =  0.001). On descriptive analysis, the walking subgroup had the fewest adverse events. Conclusions In contrast to earlier studies, the improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness in a cohort of overweight/obese participants undertaking aerobic interval training in a real world setting was modest. The most likely reason for this finding relates to reduced adherence to the exercise program, when moving beyond the research clinic setting. Trial Registration ACTR.org.au ACTRN12610000295044

Self-reported ability assessment in rock climbing.

Abstract Level of ability within rock climbing is generally expressed in terms of a “best ascent”, rated using various grading systems within the sport. The most common method of obtaining this information is via self-report. The aim of this study was to examine the validity of self-reported climbing grades. Twenty-nine competitive rock climbers (17 males, 12 females) were first asked to report their current (defined as within the last 12 months) best on-sight lead ascent grade (Aus/NZ). The participants then climbed a specifically designed indoor route, under on-sight conditions (one attempt, no route practice or preview), to obtain an assessed grade. The route increased in difficulty, and was such that the distance achieved by the climber corresponded to a particular grade. The mean (±standard deviation) self-reported and assessed grade was 22.6 ± 3.4 and 22.0 ± 3.0 (Aus/NZ) respectively. Despite slight over- and underestimations in males and females respectively, there was no statistically significant difference between self-reported and assessed on-sight climbing grades. The results of this study suggest that self-reported climbing grades provide a valid and accurate reflection of climbing ability.

Physiological and psychological responses to lead and top rope climbing for intermediate rock climbers

Abstract Rock climbing is a popular adventure sport with an increasing research base. Early studies in the field did not make comparisons of ascents using different styles of climbing. More recently, differences in the physiological responses for an on-sight lead climb and subsequent lead climb have been reported. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of style of climb (lead climb or top rope climb) on the physiological and psychological responses to rock climbing. Nine intermediate climbers volunteered for, and completed, two randomly assigned climbing trials and a maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) test on a separate occasion. The climbers ascended the same 6a (sport grade) climb for both trials. Before climbing, heart rate, perception of anxiety (Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2), and blood lactate concentration were measured. Climb time, heart rate, VO2, lactate concentrations, and task load (National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index) in response to each trial were also recorded. Results indicated significant differences (P<0.05) between the trials for climb time, blood lactate concentration immediately after and 15 min after climbing, and heart rate 1 min after climbing. During lead and top rope climbing, mean VO2 and represented 44% and 42% of treadmill VO2max and mean heart rate represented 81% and 77% of maximum heart rate, respectively. There were no significant differences in feelings of anxiety before either climb, although climbers reported the lead climb to be physically and mentally more demanding, requiring more effort and resulting in greater frustration (P<0.05) than the top rope climb. Our results indicate that the physiological and psychological responses of intermediate climbers are different for a lead climb and top rope climb.

Development of a performance assessment tool for rock climbers

Abstract Rock climbing is a popular adventure sport for which there is a growing body of scientific knowledge. There is, however, a lack of sport-specific assessment tools to monitor performance. The aim of this study was to examine the potential of the rock-over climbing test (ROCT) as a measure of climbing performance. The ROCT was conducted on a climbaflex board and involved the climber making a rock-over move for which the height gained from lower to upper handhold was measured. Results indicated there was a significant relationship between scaled (to the height of the climber) ROCT scores and climbing ability (r=0.67, P<0.0005). Regression modelling revealed that the ROCT explained 45% of the variance in scores between climbers. The ROCT differentiated between climber ability levels. Mean ROCT scores for novice, intermediate, advanced, and elite climbers were 59.5%, 71%, 82%, and 90% of participant height respectively. Results of analysis of variance revealed that these differences were significant (F 3,42=13.38, P<0.0005). Limits of agreement and intra-class correlation indicated that the ROCT is a reliable performance measure. Our findings suggest that the ROCT is a useful measure of climbing performance.

A psychophysiological comparison of on-sight lead and top rope ascents in advanced rock climbers.

Research suggests that lead climbing is both physiologically and psychologically more stressful than top rope climbing for intermediate performers. This observation may not be true for advanced climbers, who train regularly on lead routes and are accustomed to leader falls. The aim of this study was to compare the psychophysiological stresses of lead and top rope on‐sight ascents in advanced rock climbers. Twenty‐one climbers (18 men and three women) ascended routes near or at the best of their ability (22 Ewbank). Psychological stress was measured preclimb using the Revised Comparative State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI‐2R). Plasma cortisol was sampled at six intervals. The volume of oxygen (VO2) and heart rate (Hr) were measured throughout the climbs. No significant differences were found in self‐confidence, somatic, or cognitive anxiety between the conditions lead and top rope. No significant differences in plasma cortisol concentration were found between any time points. No significant relationships were found between cortisol and any CSAI‐2R measures. No significant differences were found between conditions for VO2 or blood lactate concentration. During the lead climb, Hr was significantly elevated during the last part of the route. Findings suggest that advanced rock climbers do not find lead climbing to be more stressful than top rope climbing during an on‐sight ascent.

Plasma Cortisol Concentrations and Perceived Anxiety in Response to On-Sight Rock Climbing

Previous research suggested plasma cortisol concentrations in response to rock climbing have a cubic relationship with state anxiety and self-confidence. This research, however, was conducted in a situation where the climbers had previously climbed the route. The purpose of our study was to examine this relationship in response to on-sight climbing. Nineteen (13 male, 6 female) intermediate climbers volunteered to attend anthropometric and baseline testing sessions, prior to an on-sight ascent (lead climb or top-rope) of the test climb (grade 19 Ewbank/6a sport/5.10b YDS). Data recorded included state anxiety, self-confidence and cortisol concentrations prior to completing the climb. Results indicated that there were no significant differences in state anxiety, self-confidence and plasma cortisol concentration regardless of the style of ascent (lead climb or top-rope) in an on-sight sport climbing context. Regression analysis indicated there was a significant linear relationship between plasma cortisol concentrations and self-confidence (r= - 0.52, R2=0.267, p=0.024), cognitive (r=0.5, R2=0.253, p=0.028), and somatic anxieties (r=0.46, R2=0.210, p=0.049). In an on-sight condition the relationships between plasma cortisol concentrations with anxiety (cognitive and somatic) and self-confidence were linear.

The effect of technique and ability on the VO2–heart rate relationship in rock climbing

Previous studies have speculated that the disproportionate rise in heart rate for a given VO2 may be due to anxiety, increased time spent in isometric contraction and the possible presence of the metaboreflex. The current study measured time spent in isometric contraction, rest time, pre-climb anxiety, heart rate and VO2 responses in advanced (n = 11) and intermediate (n = 11) rock climbers performing at or near their maximum self-reported on-sight grade (19/22 Ewbank). Results showed a non-significant difference (p>0.05) between groups for climb time, pre-climb heart rate and state anxiety. Throughout the majority of the climbs, it was observed that the intermediate groups heart rate per VO2 ratio was significantly greater (p < 0.05) than that seen in the advanced group. Advanced climbers spent a significantly greater period of time (p < 0.05) in an isometric position but interestingly spent a significantly greater period of time (p < 0.05) shaking out and actively resting the arms. It would appear that pre-climb anxiety played no part in the disproportionate rise in heart rate per VO2. However, the significantly increased rest time (p < 0.05) and the ability to make tactical route decisions may have increased recovery forearm blood flow, reducing metabolites and the presence of the metaboreflex.

Determination of Maximal Oxygen Uptake Using the Bruce or a Novel Athlete-Led Protocol in a Mixed Population

Determination of Maximal Oxygen Uptake Using the Bruce or a Novel Athlete-Led Protocol in a Mixed Population Treadmill tests for maximal oxygen uptake (O2max) have traditionally used set speed and incline increments regardless of participants training or exercise background. The aim of this study was to determine the validity of a novel athlete-led protocol for determining maximal aerobic fitness in adults. Twenty-nine participants (21 male, 8 female, age 29.8 ± 9.5 y, BMI 24.4 ± 3.1, mean ± SD) from a variety of exercise backgrounds were asked to complete two maximal treadmill running tests (using the standard Bruce or a novel athlete-led protocol [ALP]) to volitional failure in a counter-balanced randomised cross-over trial one week apart. We found no substantial difference in maximal oxygen uptake (47.0 ± 9.1 and 46.8 ± 10.7 ml.kg-1.min-1, mean ± SD for the ALP and Bruce protocols respectively), evidenced by the Spearman correlation coefficient of 0.93 (90% confidence limits, 0.88-0.96). However, compared to the Bruce protocol, participants completing the ALP protocol attained a substantially higher maximal heart rate (ALP = 182.8 ± 10.5, Bruce = 179.7 ± 8.7 beats.min-1). Additionally, using the Bruce protocol took a longer period of time (23.2 ± 17.0 s) compared to the ALP protocol. It seems that using either treadmill protocol will give you similar maximal oxygen uptake results. We suggest the ALP protocol which is simpler, quicker and probably better at achieving maximal heart rates is a useful alternative to the traditional Bruce protocol.

Flexibility assessment and the role of flexibility as a determinant of performance in rock climbing

Many climbers believe flexibility to be a key performance component, but this remains unsubstantiated under experimental conditions. The need for sport-specific measures of flexibility has been highlighted. The purpose of our research was to assess the validity and reliability of four novel tests of climbing flexibility. The four tests, completed on a purposebuilt climbaflex board, were the adapted Grant foot raise, climbing-specific foot raise, lateral foot reach and the foot-loading flexibility test. In addition, for comparative purposes, the participants completed two existing measures, the sit-and-reach test and Grant foot raise. With the exception of the climbing-specific foot raise all measures had good reliability (ICC = 0.90 – 0.97). The existing flexibility measures had a poor correlation with climbing ability. The lateral foot reach and the adapted Grant foot raise were correlated with climbing ability (r = 0.30; r = 0.34) and used together represent good field measures of flexibility. The foot-loading flexibility test was had the strongest correlation with climbing ability (r = 0.65) and could differentiate between climbing abilities (F3,42 = 8.38, p < 0.001) in a laboratory setting. Our findings indicate that flexibility is a key performance component for the sport when a climbing-specific test is used.

Effect of style of ascent on the psychophysiological demands of rock climbing in elite level climbers

The aim of this study was to examine the physiological and psychological responses to an on-sight lead in comparison to an on-sight top rope ascent in elite level rock climbers. Fifteen (14 male, 1 female) rock climbers took part in the study, and were included based on having a self reported on-sight ability of ≥ 25 (Ewbank). Climbers attended three separate testing sessions; a maximum oxygen uptake test (VO2max), baseline session, and an attempt at one randomly assigned climb (lead or top rope) at the limit of their ability on an indoor artificial climbing wall. Before climbing perception of anxiety (Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2), blood lactate and plasma cortisol concentration were measured. Climb time, heart rate, oxygen consumption (VO2), blood lactate, plasma cortisol concentration and task load (National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index) were measured in response to the climb. Results indicated there were no significant differences in levels of somatic or cognitive anxiety, coupled with non-significant differences in plasma cortisol concentrations measured at various intervals during the climbing trial. Despite a 32 second difference in climb time between lead and top rope ascents there were no significant differences in blood lactate concentration, total average heart rate and VO2 between climbs. When reviewing VO2 averaged at each clipping point, lead climb VO2 was significantly lower at clips 1, 3 and 5 (P < 0.05). Task load was reportedly similar, with no significant differences in physical and mental demand between climbs. Our results indicate that the physiological and psychological responses of elite level climbers do not differ for lead and top rope on-sight ascents.