George A. van Aken

Fat retention at the tongue and the role of saliva : Adhesion and spreading of 'protein-poor' versus 'protein-rich' emulsions

Fat perception of food emulsions has been found to relate to in-mouth friction. Previously, we have shown that friction under mouth-like conditions strongly depends on the sensitivity of protein-stabilized emulsion droplets to coalescence. Here, we investigated whether this also implies that oral fat retention depends in a similar manner on the stability of the emulsion droplets against coalescence. We investigate the separate contributions of droplet adhesion and droplet spreading to fat retention at the tongue, as well as the role of saliva. We perform ex vivo (Confocal Raman Spectroscopy; Confocal Scanning Laser Microscopy) experiments using pigs tongue surfaces in combination with human in vivo experiments. These reveal that protein-poor (unstable) emulsions are retained more at the tongue than protein-rich (stable) emulsions. Furthermore, the layer formed by adhering protein-poor droplets is more stable against rinsing. Saliva is found to be very efficient in removing fat and emulsion droplets from the oral surface but its role in fat retention needs further research. We relate our results to the colloidal forces governing droplet adhesion and spreading.

Colloidal destabilisation mechanisms in protein-stabilised emulsions

Over the past decade important new insights have been gained into the functionality of proteins as emulsion and foam stabilisers. This paper reviews important new findings in the fields of emulsion stabilisation by polysaccharide thickeners, coalescence in highly concentrated and dilute aggregated emulsions and emulsion droplet–air interaction. These new findings will be discussed in terms of recent improved understanding of the surface rheological behaviour and thin film behaviour of proteins. These insights may lead to an improved use of the special properties that proteins have as emulsion stabilisers compared to other stabilisers, such as low-molecular-weight surfactants or polyelectrolytes.

Modelling texture perception by soft epithelial surfaces

This paper introduces a mechanistic approach to relate the sensations of touch by epithelial surfaces of for example skin, eye or mouth to the material properties of the substrate. The approach is to model the hydrodynamic and frictional forces exerted by the substrate onto the surfaces, which are deformable and compliant to these forces. Subsequently these forces are related to the neurological responses of the mechanoreceptors buried in these surfaces. The potential of the approach is illustrated for textural perception of food materials in the mouth. It leads to several concepts for textural perception in the mouth, some of which have been demonstrated previously and some of which are new. As a first example, the branching into high and low viscosity regimes for thickness perception found experimentally can be linked directly to the detection limit of the neural receptors. As a second example, by taking into account the intrinsic roughness and deformability of the papilla surface, estimates are obtained for the cross-over between the hydrodynamic friction regime, where the papilla tips are lubricated by a thin liquid film (smooth mouthfeel), and the boundary friction regime, where the papilla tips are in direct contact with the opposing surface of the palate (rough mouthfeel). This has implications for the role of viscosity on smoothness and astringency sensations. As a final example, the model suggests that the sensation of hard particles (grittiness) can be suppressed by increasing the viscosity of the medium, which is in agreement with experimental findings from sensory studies.

Direct observation of adhesion and spreading of emulsion droplets at solid surfaces

Sensory perception of fat is related to orally perceived in-mouth friction. From this perspective, we investigate adhesion and spreading of emulsion droplets on solid surfaces and connect it to the ability of food emulsions to lower friction. Furthermore, we study what the contribution is of the separate colloidal forces on droplet adhesion. The effect of saliva on adhesion and spreading is also briefly investigated. Using a flow cell in combination with light microscopy and video imaging allowed us to clearly distinguish between adhered and spread emulsion droplets. The capability to make this distinction between adhesion and spreading experimentally is new and provided us with the insight that the occurrence of spreading is essential for lowering friction. Mainly electrostatic, steric and hydrophobic interactions of the droplets with solid surfaces are found to determine adhesion and subsequent spreading of emulsion droplets. This was investigated by varying the adsorbed amount of protein, the ionic strength of the emulsion as well as the hydrophobicity of the solid surface. Especially the hydrophobic interaction between droplet and surface is shown to be crucial for droplet adhesion and spreading. Saliva is of minor importance for adhesion and spreading. This work gives insight in the way emulsion droplets interact with solid surfaces and the type of colloidal interactions that play a role. The information it provides can be used to develop emulsions that are reasonably stable during the shelf life of the product, but do spread on oral surfaces, thus lowering friction and enhancing fat perception.

Microrheology: Structural evolution under static and dynamic conditions by simultaneous analysis of confocal microscopy and diffusing wave spectroscopy

An oscillatory shear configuration was developed to improve understanding of structural evolution during deformation. It combines an inverted confocal scanning laser microscope (CSLM) and a special sample holder that can apply to the sample specific deformation: oscillatory shear or steady strain. In this configuration, a zero-velocity plane is created in the sample by moving two plates in opposite directions, thereby providing stable observation conditions of the structural behavior under deformation. The configuration also includes diffusion wave spectroscopy (DWS) to monitor the network properties via particle mobility under static and dynamic conditions. CSLM and DWS can be performed simultaneously and three-dimensional images can be obtained under static conditions. This configuration is mainly used to study mechanistic phenomena like particle interaction, aggregation, gelation and network disintegration, interactions at interfaces under static and dynamic conditions in semisolid food materials (desserts, dressings, sauces, dairy products) and in nonfood materials (mineral emulsions, etc.). Preliminary data obtained with this new oscillatory shear configuration are described that demonstrate their capabilities and the potential contribution to other areas of application also.