Giancarlo Corsi

Medienkonflikt in der modernen Wissenschaft

Zusammenfassung Beobachtet man die Selektionsverfahren von wissenschaftlichen Zeitschriften und Verlagen, gewinnt man den Eindruck einer Diktatur der Massenmedien (hier vor allem der Publikationen) über die eigentliche wissenschaftliche Funktion, neues Wissen herzustellen. Das ist durch das bekannte Syndrom »publish or perish« bekannt und wird oft als riskante Alternative gesehen: entweder Karriere durch Standardforschung oder Grenzforschung mit unsicheren Perspektiven. Heutzutage hängen tatsächlich die symbolisch generalisierten Kommunikationsmedien von den Verbreitungsmedien ab. Aber das Problem scheint eher das Verhältnis von Evolution der Wissenschaft und Planung der organisatorischen Variablen (Reputation, Finanzierung, Projekte, akademische Spaltungen usw.) zu betreffen, die die moderne Wissenschaft ermöglichen. Während Evolution nicht kontrolliert werden kann, sind diese Variablen die einzigen, die entscheidbar sind und transparent gemacht werden können.

Social Systems Theory

The knowledge of the basic concepts of Luhmann’s theory can facilitate the understanding of his analysis of the education system. Luhmann’s systems theory is based on the distinction between system and environment, and on the concepts of autopoiesis as a general feature of systems, and meaning (Sinn) as a basic form of psychic and social systems. Luhmann’s analysis of social systems includes communication, as the basic operation of these systems, structures of expectations, structural coupling between social and psychic system, and observation as systems operation. Against this background, Luhmann’s theory of society combines the analysis of communication media, in particular, symbolically generalised media that make successful communication probable, and internal differentiation of society. This analysis leads to understanding education as a subsystem of modern, functionally differentiated society.

Career and Background

Niklas Luhmann was born in Germany in 1927. In 1949, he graduated in law and, until 1962, he worked as a jurist in the public administration. In 1962, he published his first theoretical paper, which marked the beginning of his career as a sociologist and was the first of a long series of papers and volumes. In 1968, he took the professorship in sociology at the University of Bielefeld where he taught until 1993, when he retired and was appointed Professor Emeritus. After retiring, Luhmann further expanded his theoretical project and was still influential in the sociological field. After Luhmann’s death in 1998, his work continued to be published and translated. Luhmann was one of the most prolific scholars in the history of Western thought. Many of his books have been translated in several languages, and his popularity has spread from the United States and Brazil to Korea and Japan.

Reception and Legacy

Luhmann’s theory has been widely received. It has influenced some disciplines, while others have shown a limited or hardly any interest in it. According to Luhmann, the function of sociology towards other subsystems is not to offer direct help to solve their problems, but to ‘irritate’ these systems and see how they react, as Luhmann himself did in a series of seminars and publications with the explicit intention to provoke pedagogy. The reactions of pedagogists to Luhmann’s theory ranged from taking into account and respond to it, to difficulties in understanding it. The areas of interest for pedagogy which can be developed on the basis of Luhmann’s theory are in particular social selection, educational technology, classroom interaction and the relationship between education and economy.

Why Luhmann Matters to Education

Luhmann’s theory combines different layers of conceptualisation, which are used to analyse different and interlaced objects. These layers include the general concept of system, the more specific concept of social systems, the concepts of society, interaction and organisation as particular types of social system. Thus, Luhmann’s theory provides a very complex and rich background to describe and explain all the most important aspects of education, i.e. the function and structures of education and the ways in which it is included in society, the historical background of education, the importance and structures of classroom interaction, the meaning of teaching and school organisation, the pedagogical reflection on education. Finally, Luhmann’s theory allows both differentiation and connection between pedagogical reflection and sociological analysis.

Self-descriptions in the Education System

Luhmann defines pedagogy as the theory of education, more precisely the theory of reflection of the education system. Through pedagogy, education observes and describes itself and therefore marks the difference from its environment and can build its own identity. Three main issues led to the development of pedagogy over the past centuries: (1) the autonomy of the education system; (2) the control over the effects of education, which requires a specific technology; (3) the educational responsibility for the process of social selection. Among the many consequences of the modern pedagogical reflection, there is the idea of education reform, i.e. self-education of the system claiming the best for itself.

The Education System

In Luhmann’s theory, the understanding of education firstly requires the analysis of the relationship between social systems and psychic systems. Education addresses individual psychic systems as persons by dealing with (1) the relevance of personal contingent actions, (2) the need to assume personal memory, (3) the need to demand and offer personal motivations for behaviours. In the education system, the person is a point of reference for individual development, which can be understood as a product of intentional education, as distinguished from randomised socialisation. Education became particularly important with the rise of a functionally differentiated society. In this society, education has achieved a specific function, giving a form to pupils and life courses; it is based on the autonomy of organised interaction in schools; it is differentiated from, and interdependent with other important social systems.

Luhmann and the Future of Education

An impressive number of aspects of education can be considered and developed through the lenses of Luhmann’s theory. Firstly, this theory provides an accurate analysis of teaching in classroom interactions and school organisation, connecting them to the basic structures of the education system. Secondly, it provides an analysis of learning and understanding, based on communication rather than individuality. Thirdly, Luhmann’s theory provides the analysis of the relationships between education and socialisation, thus explaining the social relevance of the person. Fourthly, Luhmann’s theory provides an explanation of the relationship between education, on the one hand, and the problems of inequality and work on the other. Finally, Luhmann’s theory offers an analysis of pedagogical reflection and its relationship with sociological theory and empirical analysis.

Structural Conditions of Education

According to Luhmann, the education system is based on a primary code that distinguishes between conveyable and non-conveyable issues. The code of conveyance is the basal structure of this system. Moreover, as it is based on the intention to educate and must highlight positive outcomes, education also gives relevance to selection. Checking the results of the education system requires selection, which distinguishes between better and worse performances. Selection is therefore the secondary code of the education system, which contributes to constructing an important part of the pupils’ careers and therefore to including them in society. Finally, education relies on the classroom interaction as a key factor that compensates the lack of a symbolically generalised medium of communication. Organisation and professionalization are other important features of education.

Tempo e giustizia nella conciliazione vita-lavoro

Work-life balance is one of the current issues within the academic, political, and managerial debate. An article discussed in a TAO Research Programs seminar held in June 2015 at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, suggests a critical interpretation of the mainstream literature and its related controversial results in terms of work-life reconciliation practices. The article also provides an alternative analytical framework based on Bruno Maggi’s organization theory, Norbert Elias’ theory of time, and Amartya Sen’s theory of justice. Scholars from different universities and disciplines contribute with comments on the notions of time, justice, organization and the proposed interpretative framework as well.