Giuseppe Vicidomini

Multi-photon excitation microscopy

Multi-photon excitation (MPE) microscopy plays a growing role among microscopical techniques utilized for studying biological matter. In conjunction with confocal microscopy it can be considered the imaging workhorse of life science laboratories. Its roots can be found in a fundamental work written by Maria Goeppert Mayer more than 70 years ago. Nowadays, 2PE and MPE microscopes are expected to increase their impact in areas such biotechnology, neurobiology, embryology, tissue engineering, materials science where imaging can be coupled to the possibility of using the microscopes in an active way, too. As well, 2PE implementations in noninvasive optical bioscopy or laser-based treatments point out to the relevance in clinical applications. Here we report about some basic aspects related to the phenomenon, implications in three-dimensional imaging microscopy, practical aspects related to design and realization of MPE microscopes, and we only give a list of potential applications and variations on the theme in order to offer a starting point for advancing new applications and developments.

Markov random field aided Bayesian approach for image reconstruction in confocal microscopy

The inverse problem associated with microscopic image reconstruction has attracted much attention and initiated a lot of interest in microscopic image processing. The inverse problem of image reconstruction from noisy and incomplete data is still one of the key factors for realizing the full potential of optical microscopy. We propose to address the inverse problem using Markov random field in the Bayesian domain. This approach has the potential advantage of incorporation of prior knowledge in the reconstruction process through the prior function, thus making the problem well-posed and computationally efficient for three-dimensional (3D) image reconstruction. Image reconstruction on 3D phantom and microscopic specimens shows comparatively noise-free and better-resolved images. The edges and minute features such as islets are well reconstructed. We believe that the proposed image reconstruction methodology will find applications in microscopy and imaging.

Role of three-dimensional bleach distribution in confocal and two-photon fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments

The quantitative analysis of fluorescence perturbation experiments such as fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) requires suitable analytical models to be developed. When diffusion in 3D environments is considered, the description of the initial condition produced by the perturbation (i.e., the photobleaching of a selected region in FRAP) represents a crucial aspect. Though it is widely known that bleaching profiles approximations can lead to errors in quantitative FRAP measurements, a detailed analysis of the sources and the effects of these approximations has never been conducted until now. In this study, we measured the experimental 3D bleaching distributions obtained in conventional and two-photon excitation schemes and analyzed the deviations from the ideal cases usually adopted in FRAP experiments. In addition, we considered the non-first-order effects generated by the high energy pulses usually delivered in FRAP experiments. These data have been used for finite-element simulations mimicking FRAP experiments on free diffusing molecules and compared with FRAP model curves based on the ideal bleach distributions. The results show that two-photon excitation more closely fits ideal bleaching patterns even in the event of fluorescence saturation, achieving estimations of diffusion coefficients within 20% accuracy of the correct value.

Fuzzy logic and maximum a posteriori-based image restoration for confocal microscopy.

We propose a maximum a posteriori image restoration approach to 3D confocal microscopy. The image field is suitably modeled as a Markov random field, resulting in a Gibbs distributed image. A fuzzy-logic-based potential is employed in the Gibbs prior. Unlike other potentials, the fuzzy potential distinguishes intensity variation due to genuine edges and noise. The proposed approach has generated artifact-free restored confocal microscopy images.

Characterization of uniform ultrathin layer for z-response measurements in three-dimensional section fluorescence microscopy

Layer‐by‐layer technique is used to adsorb a uniform ultrathin layer of fluorescently labelled polyelectrolytes on a glass cover slip. Due to their thickness, uniformity and fluorescence properties, these ultrathin layers may serve as a simple and applicable standard to directly measure the z‐response of different scanning optical microscopes. In this work we use ultrathin layers to measure the z‐response of confocal, two‐photon excitation and 4Pi laser scanning microscopes. Moreover, due to their uniformity over a wide region, i.e. cover slip surface, it is possible to quantify the z‐response of the system over a full field of view area. This property, coupled with a bright fluorescence signal, enables the use of polyelectrolyte layers for representation on sectionedu2003 imaging property charts: a very powerful method to characterize image formation properties and capabilities (z‐response, off‐axis aberration, spherical aberration, etc.) of a three‐dimensional scanning system. The sectioned imaging property charts method needs a through‐focus dataset taken from such ultrathin layers. Using a comparatively low illumination no significant bleaching occurs during the excitation process, so it is possible to achieve long‐term monitoring of the z‐response of the system. All the above mentioned properties make such ultrathin layers a suitable candidate for calibration and a powerful tool for real‐time evaluation of the optical sectioning capabilities of different three‐dimensional scanning systems especially when coupled to sectioned imaging property charts.

3D localized photoactivation of pa-GFP in living cells using two-photon interactions.

We report about two-photon activation of a photoactivatable derivative of the Aequorea Victoria green fluorescent protein (paGFP). This special form of the molecule increases its fluorescence intensity when excited by 488 nm after irradiation with high intensity light at 413 nm. The aim in this work was to evaluate the use of two-photon interactions for confining the molecular switching of pa-GFP in the bright state. Therefore experiments were performed using fixed and living cells which were expressing the paGFP fluorophore and microspheres whose surface was modified by specific adsorption of the chromophores. The molecular switches were activated in a range of wavelength from 720 nm to 840 nm. The optimal wavelength for activation was then chosen for cell imaging. A comparison between the conventional activation and two-photon mode demonstrates clearly the better three- dimensional (3D) confinement and the possibility of selection of cell volumes of interest. This enables molecular trafficking studies at high signal to noise ratio

Annular pupil filter under shot-noise condition for linear and non linear microscopy

The imaging performances of multiphoton excitation and confocal laser scanning microscopy are herby considered: in typical experimental imaging conditions, a small finite amount of photon reaches the detector giving shot-noise fluctuations which affects the signal acquired. A significant detriment in the high frequencies transmission capability is obtained. In order to partially recover the high frequencies information lost, the insertion of a pupil plane filter in the microscope illumination light pathway on the objective lens is proposed. We demonstrate high-frequency and resolution enhancement in the case of linear and non linear fluorescence microscope approach under shot-noise condition.

T2P-GFP: two-photon photo-activation of PA-GFP in the 720-840 nm spectral region

We report about a photoactivatable derivative of the Aequorea Victoria green fluorescent protein (paGFP). This special form of the molecule increases its fluorescence intensity when excited by 488 nm after irradiation with high intensity light at 413 nm1. The aim in this work was to evaluate the use of two-photon interactions for activation of the molecules2. Therefore experiments were performed using fixed and living cells which were expressing the paGFP fluorophore and microspheres whose surface was modified by specific adsorption of the chromophores. The latter objects were used to investigate the ability of different wavelengths to activate the paGFP due to the anticipated more homogeneous density distribution. The molecular switches were activated in a range of wavelength from 720 nm to 840 nm. The optimal wavelength for activation was then chosen for cell imaging. A comparison between the conventional activation with a single photon at 413 nm and two-photons demonstrates clearly the advantages using non linear processes: much smaller volume in the cell can be activated unlike to a whole cell activation in single photon excitation regime.

Image scanning microscopy (ISM) with a single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array detector

If a scanning illumination spot is combined with a detector array, we acquire a 4 dimensional signal. Unlike confocal microscopy with a small pinhole, we detect all the light from the object, which is particularly important for fluorescence microscopy, when the signal is weak. The image signal is basically a cross-correlation, and is highly redundant. It has more than sufficient information to reconstruct an improved resolution image. A 2D image can be generated from the measured signal by pixel reassignment. The result is improved resolution and signal strength, the system being called image scanning microscopy. A variety of different signal processing techniques can be used to predict the reassignment and deconvolve the partial images. We use an innovative single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array detector of 25 detectors (arranged into a 5× 5 matrix). We can simultaneously acquire 25 partial images and process to calculate the final reconstruction online.

Linewidth and Writing Resolution

This chapter introduces the concept of linewidth and writing resolution in direct laser writing (DLW) lithography. The experimental factors controlling these two parameters are mainly the wavelength of the laser, the numerical aperture of the objective lenses, and the mechanical strength of the photoresist. The two-beam approach (excitation and inhibition beams) is currently the unique alternative to confine the polymerization reaction in a continuously smaller size due to the diverse advances in the knowledge of the mechanisms of depletion. The smallest feature fabricated with the two-beam approach has 9 nm linewidth and 52 nm lateral writing resolution. Thus, the DLW lithography is a promising candidate to overcome the current limitations of the manufacturing techniques providing the ability to fabricate real nanometer and closely adjacent features.