Graham R. Johnson

Characterization of expiration air jets and droplet size distributions immediately at the mouth opening

Abstract Size distributions of expiratory droplets expelled during coughing and speaking and the velocities of the expiration air jets of healthy volunteers were measured. Droplet size was measured using the interferometric Mie imaging (IMI) technique while the particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique was used for measuring air velocity. These techniques allowed measurements in close proximity to the mouth and avoided air sampling losses. The average expiration air velocity was 11.7m/s for coughing and 3.9m/s for speaking. Under the experimental setting, evaporation and condensation effects had negligible impact on the measured droplet size. The geometric mean diameter of droplets from coughing was 13.5μm and it was 16.0μm for speaking (counting 1–100). The estimated total number of droplets expelled ranged from 947 to 2085 per cough and 112–6720 for speaking. The estimated droplet concentrations for coughing ranged from 2.4 to 5.2cm−3 per cough and 0.004–0.223cm−3 for speaking.

Ultrafine particles in indoor air of a school: possible role of secondary organic aerosols.

The aim of this work was to investigate ultrafine particles (<0.1 microm) in primary school classrooms, in relation to the classroom activities. The investigations were conducted in three classrooms during two measuring campaigns, which together encompassed a period of 60 days. Initial investigations showed that under the normal operating conditions of the school there were many occasions in all three classrooms where indoor particle concentrations increased significantly compared to outdoor levels. By far the highest increases in the classroom resulted from art activities (painting, gluing, and drawing), at times reaching over 1.4 x 10(5) particle cm(-3). The indoor particle concentrations exceeded outdoor concentrations by approximately 1 order of magnitude, with a count median diameter ranging from 20 to 50 nm. Significant increases also occurred during cleaning activities, when detergents were used. GC-MS analysis conducted on 4 samples randomly selected from about 30 different paints and glues, as well as the detergent used in the school, showed that d-limonene was one of the main organic compounds of the detergent, however, it was not detected in the samples of the paints and the glue. Controlled experiments showed that this monoterpene, emitted from the detergent, reacted with O(3) (at outdoor ambient concentrations ranging from 0.06 to 0.08 ppm) and formed secondary organic aerosols. Further investigations to identify other liquids that may be potential sources of the precursors of secondary organic aerosols were outside the scope of this project, however, it is expected that the problem identified by this study could be more widely spread, since most primary schools use liquid materials for art classes, and all schools use detergents for cleaning. Further studies are therefore recommended to better understand this phenomenon and also to minimize exposure of school children to ultrafine particles from these indoor sources.

Volatility Characterization of Cooking-Generated Aerosol Particles

Cooking-generated aerosol characterization is crucial for providing an accurate evaluation of human exposure to particle concentrations. In addition, when evaluating the dimensional properties of aerosols emitted from cooking activities, one key aspect to be investigated is the composition of the particles emitted. To this end, an evaluation of the volatility of cooking-generated aerosol particles was performed in this study. Total concentration and size distribution measurements were carried out using a thermal conditioning device, along with a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) and an aerodynamic particle sizer (APS), in order to evaluate the amount of volatile material emitted by different cooking activities (frying and grilling), as well as those involving different kinds of food (fatty and vegetable foods). The results showed a shift in the dominant size distribution mode toward smaller diameters with higher aerosol conditioning temperatures. The corresponding total number concentrations were roughly constant when fatty foods were cooked, but a significant reduction in total particle concentration was observed when vegetable foods were fried or grilled. These results seem to demonstrate the presence of a nonvolatile core when cooking fatty foods. The larger volatile fraction associated with vegetable food cooking is also demonstrated by comparing the nonvolatile surface area and volatile mass distributions for each cooking activity, in order to evaluate the particles chemical and physical effects on human being.

JEM Spotlight: Environmental monitoring of airborne nanoparticles

The aim of this work was to review the existing instrumental methods to monitor airborne nanoparticles in different types of indoor and outdoor environments in order to detect their presence and to characterise their properties. Firstly the terminology and definitions used in this field are discussed, which is followed by a review of the methods to measure particle physical characteristics including number, concentration, size distribution and surface area. An extensive discussion is provided on the direct methods for particle elemental composition measurements, as well as on indirect methods providing information on particle volatility and solubility, and thus in turn on volatile and semivolatile compounds of which the particle is composed. A brief summary of broader considerations related to nanoparticle monitoring in different environments concludes the paper.

Hygroscopic and volatile properties of marine aerosol observed at Cape Grim during the P2P campaign

Environmental context. The marine environment covers 71% of the Earth’s surface, and accounts for most of the planet’s cloud cover. Water droplets in these clouds all form on pre-existing marine aerosol particles. The number, size and composition of these particles determine the cloud droplet size and consequently, the cloud’s light scattering and precipitation behaviour. Marine aerosols, therefore, have a major influence on the planet’s radiation balance and climate. The origin of marine aerosols is still not completely resolved. The newly developed VH-TDMA technique has been applied to marine aerosols that come from the Southern Ocean. The technique enabled new insights into the composition and structure of these aerosols. It has been found that organic matter constitutes 20–40% of these particles, which suppresses their hygroscopic growth.

Ozone-Initiated Particle Formation, Particle Aging, and Precursors in a Laser Printer

An increasing number of researchers have hypothesized that ozone may be involved in the particle formation processes that occur during printing, however no studies have investigated this further. In the current study, this hypothesis was tested in a chamber study by adding supplemental ozone to the chamber after a print job without measurable ozone emissions. Subsequent particle number concentration and size distribution measurements showed that new particles were formed minutes after the addition of ozone. The results demonstrated that ozone did react with printer-generated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to form secondary organic aerosols (SOAs). The hypothesis was further confirmed by the observation of correlations among VOCs, ozone, and particles concentrations during a print job with measurable ozone emissions. The potential particle precursors were identified by a number of furnace tests, which suggested that squalene and styrene were the most likely SOA precursors with respect to ozone. Overall, this study significantly improved scientific understanding of the formation mechanisms of printer-generated particles, and highlighted the possible SOA formation potential of unsaturated nonterpene organic compounds by ozone-initiated reactions in the indoor environment.

Composition and morphology of particle emissions from in-use aircraft during takeoff and landing.

In order to provide realistic data for air pollution inventories and source apportionment at airports, the morphology and composition of ultrafine particles (UFP) in aircraft engine exhaust were measured and characterized. For this purpose, two independent measurement techniques were employed to collect emissions during normal takeoff and landing operations at Brisbane Airport, Australia. PM1 emissions in the airfield were collected on filters and analyzed using the particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) technique. Morphological and compositional analyses of individual ultrafine particles in aircraft plumes were performed on silicon nitride membrane grids using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) combined with energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis (EDX). TEM results showed that the deposited particles were in the range of 5-100 nm in diameter, had semisolid spherical shapes and were dominant in the nucleation mode (18-20 nm). The EDX analysis showed the main elements in the nucleation particles were C, O, S, and Cl. The PIXE analysis of the airfield samples was generally in agreement with the EDX in detecting S, Cl, K, Fe, and Si in the particles. The results of this study provide important scientific information on the toxicity of aircraft exhaust and their impact on local air quality.

Environmental contamination and hospital-acquired infection: factors that are easily overlooked.

There is an ongoing debate about the reasons for and factors contributing to healthcare-associated infection (HAI). Different solutions have been proposed over time to control the spread of HAI, with more focus on hand hygiene than on other aspects such as preventing the aerial dissemination of bacteria. Yet, it emerges that there is a need for a more pluralistic approach to infection control; one that reflects the complexity of the systems associated with HAI and involves multidisciplinary teams including hospital doctors, infection control nurses, microbiologists, architects, and engineers with expertise in building design and facilities management. This study reviews the knowledge base on the role that environmental contamination plays in the transmission of HAI, with the aim of raising awareness regarding infection control issues that are frequently overlooked. From the discussion presented in the study, it is clear that many unknowns persist regarding aerial dissemination of bacteria, and its control via cleaning and disinfection of the clinical environment. There is a paucity of good-quality epidemiological data, making it difficult for healthcare authorities to develop evidence-based policies. Consequently, there is a strong need for carefully designed studies to determine the impact of environmental contamination on the spread of HAI.

Application of the VH-TDMA technique to coastal ambient aerosols

A newly developed VH-TDMA has been used for the first time to measure the volatile fractions and post volatilization hygroscopic growth factors of ambient aerosols in the coastal marine and urban environments. The results are compared with comparable data for laboratory generated aerosols of known composition. Measurements conducted on coastal Aitken mode particles showed volatilization behavior similar to laboratory generated aerosols composed of methane sulfonic acid and ammonium sulfate. Measurements conducted on 60 nm particles during nucleation events contained a greater fraction of material with similar volatility to ammonium sulfate than was found at other times. These particles were hygroscopic but less so than pure ammonium sulfate. Measurements conducted in the Brisbane central business district during sea breeze conditions show similar behavior to the coastal aerosol, but with additional low volatility species. This aerosol may originate from urban sources or from marine particles acquiring additional secondary aerosol species during transport. I. Introduction Measurement of thermal volatilization temperatures can reveal the presence of lower volatility species within aerosol particles (Clarke, 1993; Orsini et al., 1996; Sakurai et al., 2003; Schmid et al., 2002). By measuring the hygroscopic behavior of the aerosol after volatilization the solubility of these low volatility residues can also be examined. A volatilization and humidification tandem differential mobility analyzer VH-TDMA system was recently developed for this purpose and the design of this system as well as it’s performance with respect to a variety of laboratory generated aerosols representing species thought to exist in coastal marine ambient aerosols has been previously described (Johnson et al., 2004). The current work demonstrates the application of this system in examining ambient aerosols including those found in coastal marine and urban environments.

Precursors to Particles (P2P) at Cape Grim 2006: Campaign Overview

Environmental context. Understanding the role of clouds in assessing the impact of climate change is a challenging issue. It is thought that plankton and seaweed contribute to the formation of clouds by emitting gases that lead to the particle production necessary for cloud formation. Macroalgae (kelp) at Mace Head, Ireland, produce large quantities of iodine when exposed to sunlight at low tide and this iodine results in the rapid production of particles. Cape Grim, Tasmania, also has large colonies of kelp and the role of Bull Kelp (Durvillaea potatorum) in particle production was assessed. Abstract. Iodine emissions from coastal macroalgae have been found to be important initiators for nucleation events at Mace Head, Ireland. The source of this iodine is the large beds of the brown kelp Laminaria digitata, which are significantly exposed at low tide. On the coast around Cape Grim, Tasmania, there are beds of the brown kelp Durvillaea potatrum. The Precursors to Particles 2006 (P2P 2006) campaign at the Cape Grim Baseline Air Pollution Station in late summer (February) 2006 focused on the role of this local kelp in providing precursor gases to particle formation. Durvillaea potatorum does not produce iodated precursor gases at the levels observed at Mace Head. IO was measured at 0.5 ± 0.3 ppt, while OIO was below detection limits (9 ppt). The dominant atmospheric iodated species was methyl iodide and the average concentration measured at the Cape Grim Station was 1.5 ± 0.3 pptv in baseline conditions, but showed significant variation in discrete samples collected immediately above the ocean surface. Nucleation events were not detected at the Cape Grim Station, except for one period where the plume of a local bushfire interacted with air of marine origin. The passage of four fronts did not result in nucleation bursts and measurements on the beach 94 m below the Cape Grim Station suggested that Durvillaea potatorum was only a weak source of new particles.