Guillaume Lescuyer

Monitoring, indicators and community based forest management in the tropics: pretexts or red herrings?

Over the last 20xa0years, transfer of the management of natural resources to local populations has been a major trend in the tropics. Many of these initiatives today incorporate the development of monitoring systems based on Criteria and Indicators (C&I), used to gauge environmental, socio-economic, and institutional consequences over a long period of time. The design of C&I at a local level involves combining scientific expertise with traditional ecological knowledge. There are numerous methods of merging these two branches of knowledge and developing a local monitoring system. The difficulty lies in setting up these local monitoring systems. A review of the literature available demonstrates that the handing over of monitoring systems to local communities has rarely been successful. In almost every case study, when the donor agency initiating the process withdrew, monitoring was either much less intensive or came to a complete stop. Despite this blatant deficiency local monitoring systems constitute an almost compulsory component of any donor-funded program/project dealing with sustainable management of natural resources. In our views, the real implementation of C&I by and for communities can only be achieved if there is a genuine devolution of management power, including responsibilities and benefits, to local stakeholders. Unless they link environmental changes to the communities’ own management decisions, formal participative monitoring systems will continue to fail.

The Challenges of Redistributing Forest-Related Monetary Benefits to Local Governments: A Decade of Logging Area Fees in Cameroon

SUMMARY The Cameroonian regulatory framework on forest, wildlife and fisheries requires logging companies to pay an Area Fee (AF), half of which must be redistributed to rural councils (40%) and villages (10%) neighbouring the logging concessions. The AF had the main objectives to provide a consistent contribution to the State budget and to improve rural livelihoods through an equitable and effective redistribution of forest-related benefits. After a decade of implementation, and about 85 million redistributed to about 50 councils, the literature unanimously evaluates the livelihood impacts of the distribution of the AF to communities as weak. Less comprehensive assessments have been carried out on the impacts of distribution of the AF to local governments. This paper discusses the potential of the AF as a tool for local development through local councils, with particular attention to the economic, equity and governance issues. One of the most significant findings is that mayors, although elected and unanimously blamed for embezzlements and mismanagement of the AF, are often only scapegoats in a complex political system that does not allow the rural population to directly sanction the misuse of the AF via the current electoral system.

USE AND MISUSE OF FOREST INCOME BY RURAL COMMUNITIES IN CAMEROON

ABSTRACT Since 1996, Cameroon has been redistributing a share of Annual Forest Royalties (AFF) to villages/communities, with the aim of increasing rural peoples standards of living. However, its application has been widely criticized. Our study is based on a sample of nine communities in the Cameroon forest belt. We found that: • a significant part of AFF does not reach communities; • 3 villages out of 9 add other incomes to AFF payments in order to carry out collective investments; and • 3 other villages were able to justify the complete use of their AFF. This relative success in the establishment of a decentralized mechanism for forest income management indicates the need for strengthening the capabilities of communities in order to guarantee endogenous development.

From Farmers to Loggers: The Role of Shifting Cultivation Landscapes in Timber Production in Cameroon

This article focuses on timber sourced from the agricultural areas in the shifting cultivation landscapes of the Central Region of Cameroon. Data about volumes marketed in urban centres, harvesting operations and on-farm timber management are used to discuss the ecological impact of small-scale logging and its sustainability in the long term. An opportunistic association exists between small-scale logging and agricultural land uses, determined mostly by the abundance of valuable species in fallows and on cocoa farms, their easy accessibility and the low price of farmland timber. Farmers apply various strategies to the management of tree resources in fallows and cocoa agroforests, with most felling authorized in fallows and most trees preserved on the cocoa farms. With current agricultural expansion and intensification trends associated with small-scale logging, timber resources on rural land are at risk of depletion with direct consequences for domestic timber supply and the thousands of livelihoods it sustains. Marketing and regulatory changes are needed to encourage the integration of timber production in agricultural management systems.

What is the Role for Forest Certification in Improving Relationships between Logging Companies and Communities? Lessons from FSC in Cameroon

SUMMARY Responding to pressure from international markets, environmental NGOs and donors, several logging companies in the Congo Basin have opted for voluntary certification schemes, such as the one proposed by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). The FSC scheme promotes forest management that is environmentally appropriate, economically viable and socially beneficial. The latter component, which is the focus of this paper, aims at the optimal integration of the local population in the forest management. We assess local organizations active around six FSC certified concessions in Cameroon and evaluate their legitimacy and effectiveness in building and maintaining a positive relationship between communities and logging companies. Results show that FSC certification plays a key role in the emergence of multi-stakeholder platforms that function as mechanisms of improved ‘social exchange’. To some extent, such exchanges also contribute to less conflicting relations between logging companies and local communities, as well as reinforcing the social requirements of the forest law. Some shortcomings, however, remain, and we suggest logging companies should consider improving the balance of power between themselves and the communities, notably by reviewing the current top-down approach in establishing and managing discussion platforms. Sous la pression des marchés internationaux, des ONG environnementales et des bailleurs, plusieurs compagnies forestières du bassin du Congo ont opté pour des systèmes de certification volontaire telle que le Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). Le FSC encourage une gestion forestière respectueuse de lenvironnement, économiquement viable et socialement bénéfique. La dernière composante qui est lobjet de cet article vise à intégrer les populations locales dans la gestion forestière. Nous examinons les plateformes de concertation actives autour de six concessions forestières certifiées au Cameroun et évaluons leur effectivité ainsi que leur légitimité à établir et maintenir des relations positives entre les compagnies forestières et les populations. Les résultats montrent que la certification FSC est déterminante dans lémergence des plateformes qui sont des mécanismes de collaboration. Dans une certaine mesure, cette collaboration contribue également à diminuer les tensions entre les compagnies forestières et les populations locales et rendre effectif la réglementation forestière. En respuesta a la presión de los mercados internacionales, las ONG ambientales y los donantes, varias empresas madereras de la Cuenca del Congo han optado por participar en sistemas de certificación voluntarios, como el ofrecido por el Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). El sistema del FSC promueve una gestión forestal apropiada para el medio ambiente, económicamente viable y socialmente beneficiosa. Este último componente, que constituye el foco de este estudio, tiene como objetivo la integración óptima de la población local en la gestión forestal. Para ello, evaluamos las organizaciones locales activas en torno a seis concesiones certificadas por el FSC en Camerún y analizamos su legitimidad y efectividad en la construcción y el mantenimiento de una relación positiva entre las comunidades y las empresas madereras. Los resultados muestran que la certificación FSC juega un papel clave en la aparición de plataformas de partes interesadas múltiples, que funcionan como mecanismos de “intercambio social” mejorado. Hasta cierto punto, estos intercambios contribuyen también a la reducción de conflictos en las relaciones entre las empresas madereras y las comunidades locales, así como a reforzar los requisitos sociales de la legislación forestal. Siguen presentes, sin embargo, algunas deficiencias, por lo que sugerimos que las empresas madereras deberían considerar el mejorar el equilibrio de poder entre ellas y las comunidades, en particular mediante la revisión del enfoque actual de tipo arriba-abajo para el establecimiento y la gestión de foros de discusión.

Does gathering really pay? Case studies from forest areas of the East and South regions of Cameroon

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are frequently considered as providing a major contribution to the livelihoods of forest people as sources of food, feed, medicinal plants, wood fuel, materials for building and crafts and cash. Therefore, logging concessionaires, especially when they exploit species having both timber and non-timber values, are often blamed for jeopardizing forest peoples livelihoods. We have tested this assumption in two logging concessions located in the South and East regions of Cameroon. Contrary to most publications about NTFPs, our case studies (1) focus on actual conflicts and not on potential conflicts of use, (2) favour a holistic approach to the local uses of resources rather than focusing exclusively on NTFPs. Our results show that gathering is mainly destined for home consumption and that its contribution to the monetary income of the households is secondary compared with agricultural commodities, bush meat and timber extraction. However, the perceived importance of gathering by focus groups is much higher than the actual economic contribution to livelihoods obtained through quarterly household surveys. Such discrepancy is probably due to the cultural importance of NTFPs for forest people. The article concludes that NTFP gathering is seldom a source of conflict between concessionaires and communities. Encroachments into concessions for agricultural expansion, massive poaching and illegal logging are the major sources of conflicts, which need to be tackled in priority.

Sustainable Forest Management at the Local Scale: A Comparative Analysis of Community Forests and Domestic Forests in Cameroon

In Cameroon, community forests are frequently presented as a relevant option to increase the welfare of rural populations and simultaneously improve local governance and forest resources conservation. But apart from community forests, rural livelihoods also depend on forest areas, designated as ‘domestic forests’ in this article, where local users enjoy informal customary rights. The specific contributions of community and domestic forests to the evolution of the prevailing socio-ecological system are assessed through a diachronic study of a village which is located in southern Cameroon. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework is used to compare the progress of this social-ecological system between January 2008 and December 2009. The overall evolution of livelihoods was found to be positive during that period. In this case study, domestic forests and community forests are based on complementary models, which are often observed in southern Cameroon. Domestic forests constitute the basis of socio-economic development, while community forests might offer opportunities for a local-level carbon sequestration payment mechanism.

Evaluation of the impacts of Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification of natural forest management in the tropics: a rigorous approach to assessment of a complex conservation intervention

After more than 20 years and substantial investments of time and money, Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification of tropical forest management is due for a stringent impact evaluation. For any social, ecological, and economic outcomes to be attributed to FSC certification, rival explanations need to be ruled out. We recognize that different types of knowledge about FSC impacts derived from information gathered through a range of methods can satisfy the evidence-needs of different stakeholders. But this paper describes a roadmap based on rigorous methods to assess whether FSC certification delivers on its expected outcomes and the underlying mechanisms through which changes can be attributable to FSC. To this end, background studies that provide contextual knowledge related to implementation of FSC certification are proposed to account for any positive self-selection biases and to capture the temporal dynamics of certification including changes in the sociopolitical and economic contexts that influence certification decisions. (Resume dauteur)

Evaluation du secteur du sciage artisanal dans le Bassin du Congo

Le rapport sur letat des Forets 2010 a beneficie dun support financier majeur de l´Union europeenne, des Etats-Unis, de lAllemagne, de la France, et de lUNESCO. Il a profite de la participation de plus d´une centaine de personnes provenant dinstitutions diverses et variees et a enregistre une forte implication des administrations forestieres des pays dAfrique centrale. Le processus delaboration de lEdF 2010 a debute par la selection et la definition des indicateurs permettant deffectuer le suivi de letat des forets dAfrique centrale. Ces indicateurs sont structures autour de trois themes: (i) etat et evolution du couvert forestier, (ii) gestion des forets de production et (iii) conservation et valorisation de la biodiversite. Ils se rapportent egalement a une structure hierarchique a trois niveaux : le niveau regional, le niveau national et le niveau des unites de gestion (particulierement les concessions forestieres et les zones protegees). Ces indicateurs ont tous ete valides par un panel representatif des differentes parties prenantes de la gestion forestiere en Afrique centrale. Les indicateurs ont guide la collecte des donnees qui sorganise chaque annee davril a aout autour de groupes nationaux, de quatre a dix membres selon les pays, tous travaillant au sein des administrations publiques en charge des forets. Les donnees collectees, qui concernent en majeure partie les annees 2009 et 2010, ont ensuite egalement fait lobjet dune validation au cours dateliers nationaux auxquels ont participe les responsables des administrations publiques, des representants des ONG environnementales, du secteur prive et des projets de developpement. Ces donnees ont servi de support aux redacteurs des chapitres du present rapport places sous la supervision dun comite scientifique de renommee internationale. Enfin, lors dun atelier qui sest deroule a Douala les 29 et 30 mars 2011, une version preliminaire de lEdF 2010 a ete commentee par un large public dexperts et a, apres amendements, ete utilisee pour la mise en page du present rapport. (Resume dauteur)Ce chapitre presente les resultats les plus recents disponibles sur la distribution spatiale et sur levolution des forets du bassin du Congo, en se basant sur lexploitation et lanalyse dun grand nombre de photos satellites acquises au cours des vingt dernieres annees? Il presente, dune part, une nouvelle carte des types de foret construite sur les recherches precedentes en y integrant une combinaison des meilleures donnees satellites disponibles. Il decrit ensuite lestimation la plus precise possible du changement du couvert forestier en se basant sur les resultats complementaires de deux etudes respectivement basees sur un echantillon dimages Landsat couvrant lensemble du territoire des six pays forestiers et une couverture exhaustive de la RDC par des mosaiques Landsat.Le rôLe de La faune dans Le cadre de La sécurité aLimentaire en afrique centraLe : une menace pour La biodiversité ?Au cours des vingt dernières années, les six pays forestiers du bassin du Congo ont conçu et adopté des politiques forestières dans le but, d’une part, de réduire la pauvreté notamment en milieu rural et, d’autre part, de contribuer à l’amélioration de leurs économies nationales et de promouvoir la gestion responsable de la diversité biologique. En effet, dans la région, la gestion des forêts intervient dans un contexte de pauvreté rurale généralisée : on estime que plus de 58 % de ces populations vivent en dessous du seuil de pauvreté (avec 2

The contribution of NTFP-gathering to rural people’s livelihoods around two timber concessions in Gabon

/jour), la majorité d’entre elles habitant dans des zones où la forêt tient une place prédominante (World Bank, 2010). Au fil des années, les nouvelles lois ont permis d’améliorer considérablement les méthodes de gestion des forêts. On a constaté une forte augmentation du nombre de concessions forestières gérées au moyen de plans d’aménagement forestier et, surtout, un accroissement des impôts collectés par le Trésor public (Eba’a Atyi et al., 2009). Cependant, la grande majorité de ces réformes politiques se sont concentrées sur les activités forestières industrielles et orientées vers l’exportation, en négligeant la production par sciage artisanal, à plus petite échelle et vendue en grande partie sur les marchés intérieurs et régionaux. Les titres d’exploitation à petite échelle qui autorisent les citoyens à abattre un nombre limité d’arbres, généralement pour leurs besoins personnels et à des fins non commerciales, sont en effet inclus dans tous les cadres légaux de la région. Cependant, ils ne sont pas adaptés aux besoins actuels des scieurs artisanaux et, à ce titre, ils sont rarement sollicités. Par conséquent, le secteur domestique du bois reste en grande partie informel en dépit de son importance. Ses impacts économiques, écologiques et sociaux sont méconnus des ministères et ne sont pas pris en compte dans les statistiques nationales et internationales. Par exemple, pour l’année 2007, les statistiques officielles faisaient état d’une production de bois en Afrique centrale d’environ 8,4 millions de m3 (Eba’a Atyi et al., 2009), le Gabon et le Cameroun étant les plus gros producteurs et la République démocratique du Congo (RDC) le plus petit d’entre eux. Cependant, l’ensemble des données nationales et internationales, notamment celles de la FAOSTAT, de l’UN Comtrade22 ou de l’OIBT, ne concernaient que la production du secteur forestier industriel et orienté vers l’exportation.