Herbert Dr. Bruder

Image reconstruction and image quality evaluation for a 64-slice CT scanner with z-flying focal spot

We present a theoretical overview and a performance evaluation of a novel z-sampling technique for multidetector row CT (MDCT), relying on a periodic motion of the focal spot in the longitudinal direction (z-flying focal spot) to double the number of simultaneously acquired slices. The z-flying focal spot technique has been implemented in a recently introduced MDCT scanner. Using 32 x 0.6 mm collimation, this scanner acquires 64 overlapping 0.6 mm slices per rotation in its spiral (helical) mode of operation, with the goal of improved longitudinal resolution and reduction of spiral artifacts. The longitudinal sampling distance at isocenter is 0.3 mm. We discuss in detail the impact of the z-flying focal spot technique on image reconstruction. We present measurements of spiral slice sensitivity profiles (SSPs) and of longitudinal resolution, both in the isocenter and off-center. We evaluate the pitch dependence of the image noise measured in a centered 20 cm water phantom. To investigate spiral image quality we present images of an anthropomorphic thorax phantom and patient scans. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the spiral SSPs shows only minor variations as a function of the pitch, measured values differ by less than 0.15 mm from the nominal values 0.6, 0.75, 1, 1.5, and 2 mm. The measured FWHM of the smallest slice ranges between 0.66 and 0.68 mm at isocenter, except for pitch 0.55 (0.72 mm). In a centered z-resolution phantom, bar patterns up to 15 lp/cm can be visualized independent of the pitch, corresponding to 0.33 mm longitudinal resolution. 100 mm off-center, bar patterns up to 14 lp/cm are visible, corresponding to an object size of 0.36 mm that can be resolved in the z direction. Image noise for constant effective mAs is almost independent of the pitch. Measured values show a variation of less than 7% as a function of the pitch, which demonstrates correct utilization of the applied radiation dose at any pitch. The product of image noise and square root of the slice width (FWHM of the respective SSP) is the same constant for all slices except 0.6 mm. For the thinnest slice, relative image noise is increased by 17%. Spiral windmill-type artifacts are effectively suppressed with the z-flying focal spot technique, which has the potential to maintain a low artifact level up to pitch 1.5, in this way increasing the maximum volume coverage speed that can be clinically used.

Image reconstruction and image quality evaluation for a dual source CT scanner

The authors present and evaluate concepts for image reconstruction in dual source CT (DSCT). They describe both standard spiral (helical) DSCT image reconstruction and electrocardiogram (ECG)-synchronized image reconstruction. For a compact mechanical design of the DSCT, one detector (A) can cover the full scan field of view, while the other detector (B) has to be restricted to a smaller, central field of view. The authors develop an algorithm for scan data completion, extrapolating truncated data of detector (B) by using data of detector (A). They propose a unified framework for convolution and simultaneous 3D backprojection of both (A) and (B) data, with similar treatment of standard spiral, ECG-gated spiral, and sequential (axial) scan data. In ECG-synchronized image reconstruction, a flexible scan data range per measurement system can be used to trade off temporal resolution for reduced image noise. Both data extrapolation and image reconstruction are evaluated by means of computer simulated data of anthropomorphic phantoms, by phantom measurements and patient studies. The authors show that a consistent filter direction along the spiral tangent on both detectors is essential to reduce cone-beam artifacts, requiring truncation of the extrapolated (B) data after convolution in standard spiral scans. Reconstructions of an anthropomorphic thorax phantom demonstrate good image quality and dose accumulation as theoretically expected for simultaneous 3D backprojection of the filtered (A) data and the truncated filtered (B) data into the same 3D image volume. In ECG-gated spiral modes, spiral slice sensitivity profiles (SSPs) show only minor dependence on the patients heart rate if the spiral pitch is properly adapted. Measurements with a thin gold plate phantom result in effective slice widths (full width at half maximum of the SSP) of 0.63-0.69 mm for the nominal 0.6 mm slice and 0.82-0.87 mm for the nominal 0.75 mm slice. The visually determined through-plane (z axis) spatial resolution in a bar pattern phantom is 0.33-0.36 mm for the nominal 0.6 mm slice and 0.45 mm for the nominal 0.75 mm slice, again almost independent of the patients heart rate. The authors verify the theoretically expected temporal resolution of 83 ms at 330 ms gantry rotation time by blur free images of a moving coronary artery phantom with 90 ms rest phase and demonstrate image noise reduction as predicted for increased reconstruction data ranges per measurement system. Finally, they show that the smoothness of the transition between image stacks acquired in different cardiac cycles can be efficiently controlled with the proposed approach for ECG-synchronized image reconstruction.

Image reconstruction and performance evaluation for ECG-gated spiral scanning with a 16-slice CT system

We present an image reconstruction approach and a performance evaluation for ECG-gate cardiac spiral scanning with recently introduced 16-slice CT equipment. We present an extension of the Adaptive Cardio Volume (ACV) reconstruction approach for ECG-gated multislice spiral scanning. We discuss the image z reformation introduced to control the spiral slice width of the final images and give an overview of the reformation functions chosen. We investigate image quality and discuss the maximum number of slices that can be reconstructed without severe cone-beam artifacts. Slice sensitivity profiles (SSPs) and transverse resolution are evaluated as a function of the patients heart rate. We demonstrate the influence of slice width on the visualization of stents and plaques and show the impact of reduced gantry rotation time (0.42 s) on temporal resolution. Deviating from general purpose spiral scanning cone-beam reconstruction is not required for ECG-gated cardiac CT with up to 16 slices. Using the ACV approach with image reformation, SSPs are well defined and independent of the patients heart rate. With 0.75 mm collimated slice width, the measured full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the smallest reconstructed slice is about 0.83 mm. Using this slice width and overlapping image reconstruction, cylindrical holes 0.6-0.7 mm in diameter can be resolved in a z-resolution phantom. Adequate visualization of the coronary arteries requires reconstruction slice widths not larger than 1.5 mm. Visualization of stents and severe calcifications is significantly improved with sub-mm slice width. Experimental evidence for the theoretically predicted temporal resolution and for the variation of temporal resolution depending on the position in the field of measurement (FOM) is presented. With 0.42 s gantry rotation temporal resolution reaches its optimum of 105 ms in the center of the FOM at 81 bpm. First scans on human subjects demonstrate the potential to expand the range of heart rates accessible to routine clinical examinations. A 16-slice platform can cover the heart with sub-mm slices within short breath-hold times, allowing for improved cardiac imaging due to isotropic sub-mm spatial resolution.

Spatio-temporal filtration of dynamic CT data using diffusion filters

We present a method for spatio-temporal filtration of dynamic CT data, to increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of image data at the same time maintaining image quality, in particular spatial and temporal sharpness of the images. Alternatively, the radiation dose applied to the patient can be reduced at the same time maintaining the noise level and the image sharpness. In contrast to classical methods, which generally operate on the three spatial dimensions of image data, noise statistics is improved by extending the filtration to the temporal dimension. Our approach is based on nonlinear and anisotropic diffusion filters, which are based on a model of heat diffusion adapted to medical CT data. Bilateral filters are a special class of diffusion filters, which do not need iteration to reach a convergence image, but represent the fixed point of a dedicated diffusion filter. Spatio-temporal, anisotropic bilateral filters are developed and applied to dynamic CT image data. The potential was evaluated using data from perfusion CT and cardiac dual source CT (DSCT) data, respectively. It was shown, that in perfusion CT, SNR can be improved by a factor of 4 at the same radiation dose. On basis of clinical data it was shown, that alternatively the radiation dose to the patient can be reduced by a factor of at least 2. A more accurate evaluation of the perfusion parameters blood flow, blood volume and time-to-peak is supported. In DSCT noise statistics can be improved using more projection data than needed for image reconstruction, however, as a consequence the temporal resolution is significantly impaired. Due to the anisotropy of the spatio-temporal bilateral filter temporal contrast edges between adjacent time samples are preserved, at the same time substantially smoothing image data in homogeneous regions. Also temporal contrast edges are preserved, maintaining the very high temporal resolution of DSCT acquisitions (~ 80 ms). CT examinations of the heart require careful dose management to reduce the radiation dose burden to the patient. The use of spatio-temporal diffusion filters allows for dose reduction at the same noise level, at the same time preserving spatial and temporal image resolution. Our approach can be extended to any imaging method, that is based on dynamic data, as an efficient tool for edge-preserving noise reduction.

Adaptive iterative reconstruction

It is well known that, in CT reconstruction, Maximum A Posteriori (MAP) reconstruction based on a Poisson noise model can be well approximated by Penalized Weighted Least Square (PWLS) minimization based on a data dependent Gaussian noise model. We study minimization of the PWLS objective function using the Gradient Descent (GD) method, and show that if an exact inverse of the forward projector exists, the PWLS GD update equation can be translated into an update equation which entirely operates in the image domain. In case of non-linear regularization and arbitrary noise model this means that a non-linear image filter must exist which solves the optimization problem. In the general case of non-linear regularization and arbitrary noise model, the analytical computation is not trivial and might lead to image filters which are computationally very expensive. We introduce a new iteration scheme in image space, based on a regularization filter with an anisotropic noise model. Basically, this approximates the statistical data weighting and regularization in PWLS reconstruction. If needed, e.g. for compensation of the non-exactness of backprojector, the image-based regularization loop can be preceded by a raw data based loop without regularization and statistical data weighting. We call this combined iterative reconstruction scheme Adaptive Iterative Reconstruction (AIR). It will be shown that in terms of low-contrast visibility, sharpness-to-noise and contrast-to-noise ratio, PWLS and AIR reconstruction are similar to a high degree of accuracy. In clinical images the noise texture of AIR is also superior to the more artificial texture of PWLS.

Evaluation of a novel CT image reconstruction algorithm with enhanced temporal resolution

We present an evaluation of a novel algorithm that is designed to enhance temporal resolution in CT beyond the short-scan limit by making use of a histogram constraint. A minimum scan angle of 180° plus fan angle is needed to acquire complete data for reconstructing an image. Conventionally, this means that a temporal resolution of half the gantry rotation time is achievable in the isocenter and that an enhancement of temporal resolution can only be accomplished by a faster gantry rotation or by using a dual-source system. In this work we pursue a different approach, namely employing an iterative algorithm to reconstruct images from less than 180° of projections and using a histogram constraint to prevent the occurrence of limited-angle artifacts. The method is fundamentally different from previously published approaches using prior images and TV minimization. Furthermore, motion detection is used to enhance dose usage in those parts of the image where temporal resolution is not critical. We evaluate the technique with patient and phantom scans as well as using simulated data. The proposed method yields good results and image quality, both with simulated and with clinical data. Our evaluations show that an enhancement of temporal resolution to a value equivalent to about 120° of projections is viable, which corresponds to an enhancement of temporal resolution by about 30%. Furthermore, by employing motion detection, a substantial noise reduction can be achieved in those parts of the image where no motion occurs.

Efficient Extended Field of View (eFOV) Reconstruction Techniques for Multi-Slice Helical CT

Truncation of CT projection data is always coupled with incomplete angular sampling and can lead to severe image artifacts in clinical CT. Extrapolation of projection data is needed to restore CT values inside and outside the scan field of view (SFOV). We present three types of extrapolation schemes. The first type (M1) is characterized by extrapolation of projection data using a virtual object of constant attenuation. For multi-slice helical CT this extrapolation scheme is applied in a row-wise manner. The second type (M2) utilizes consistency conditions of parallel projection data. The conservation of mth order moments of non-truncated projections can be utilized for the extrapolation of truncated projection data by fitting extrapolation functions of variable length. The third method (M3) extrapolates truncated data by sinogram decomposition and completion. For each voxel in image space the corresponding trace in the 3D-sinogram is computed. The minimum signal within each trace is extrapolated to the extended sinogram parts, which represent the extended FOV. Based on the evaluation of both simulation data of an anthropomorphic thorax phantom and clinical data, we evaluate the three reconstruction techniques. Sinogram decomposition proofs to be better than the other techniques, but is computationally very demanding.

Design considerations in cardiac CT

In cardiac CT temporal resolution is directly related to the gantry rotation time of 3rd generation CT scanners. This time cannot be substantially reduced below current standards of 0.33 s - 0.35 s due to mechanical limitations. As an alternative we present a dual source CT (DSCT) system. The system is equipped with two X-ray tubes and two corresponding detectors that are mounted onto the rotating gantry with an angular offset of 90°. Due to the simultaneous data acquisition and the angular offset, complementary quarter-scan data are measured at the same phase in the cardiac cycle. Hence, the exposure time of any image slice is reduced by a factor of two and the temporal resolution is improved by the same factor. In contrast to single source cardiac CT with multi-segment image reconstruction, the temporal resolution does not depend on the heart rate. Since multi-segment reconstruction techniques applied in single source cardiac CT, which limit the table speed, are no longer needed, faster volume coverage in cardiac spiral imaging can be achieved. As a consequence of these concepts, patient dose in cardiac CT can be significantly reduced. ECG correlated image reconstruction is based on 3D backprojection of the Feldkamp type. Data truncation coming from the fact that one detector (A) covers the entire scan field of view (50 cm in diameter), while the other detector (B) is restricted to a smaller, central field of view (26 cm in diameter), has to be treated. We evaluate temporal resolution and dose efficiency by means of phantom scans and computer simulations. We present first patient scans to illustrate the performance of DSCT for ECG correlated cardiac imaging.

Flash imaging in dual source CT (DSCT)

We present new acquisition modes of a recently introduced dual-source computed tomography (DSCT) system equipped with two X-ray tubes and two corresponding detectors, mounted onto the rotating gantry with an angular offset of typically 90°. Due to the simultaneous acquisition of complementary data, the minimum exposure time is reduced by a factor of two compared to a single-source CT system (SSCT). The correspondingly improved temporal resolution is beneficial for cardiac CT. Also, maximum table feed per rotation in a spiral mode can be increased by a factor of 2 compared to SSCT, which provides benefits both for cardiac CT and non-cardiac CT. In an ECG-triggered mode the entire cardiac volume can be scanned within a fraction of one cardiac RR-cycle. At a rotation time of 0.28s using a detector with 64×0.6 mm beam collimation, the scan time of the entire heart is less than 0.3s at a temporal resolution of 75 ms. It will be shown, that the extremely fast cardiac scan reduces the patient dose to a theoretical lowest limit: for a 120 kV scan the dose level for a typical cardiac CT scan is well below 2 mSv. Using further protocol optimization (scan range adaptation, 100kV), the radiation dose can be reduced below 1mSv.

Correction of cross-scatter in next generation dual source CT (DSCT) scanners

In dual source CT (DSCT) with two X-ray sources and two data measurement systems mounted on a CT gantry with a mechanical offset of 90 deg, cross scatter radiation, (essentially 90 deg Compton scatter) is added to the detector signals. In current DSCT scanners the cross scatter correction is model based: the idea is to describe the scattering surface in terms of its tangents. The positions of these tangent lines are used to characterize the shape of the scattering object. For future DSCT scanners with larger axial X-ray beams, the model based correction will not perfectly remove the scatter signal in certain clinical situations: for obese patients scatter artifacts in cardiac dual source scan modes might occur. These shortcomings can be circumvented by utilizing the non-diagnostic time windows in cardiac scan modes to detect cross scatter online. The X-ray generators of both systems have to be switched on and off alternating. If one X-ray source is switched off, cross scatter deposited in the respective other detector can be recorded and processed, to be used for efficient cross scatter correction. The procedure will be demonstrated for cardiac step&shoot as well as for spiral acquisitions. Full rotation reconstructions are less sensitive to cross scatter radiation; hence in non-cardiac case the model-based approach is sufficient. Based on measurements of physical and anthropomorphic phantoms we present image data for DSCT systems with various collimator openings demonstrating the efficacy of the proposed method. In addition, a thorough analysis of contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) shows, that even for a X-ray beam corresponding to a 64x0.6 mm collimation, the maximum loss of CNR due to cross scatter is only about 7% in case of obese patients.