Ignasi Marco

EFFECTS OF ACEPROMAZINE ON CAPTURE STRESS IN ROE DEER (CAPREOLUS CAPREOLUS)

The aim of this study was to evaluate effect of a short-acting neuroleptic (acepromazine) on capture stress response in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Sixteen roe deer were captured by drive-nets in the winters of 1998, 1999, and 2001. Roe deer were divided into two groups: animals in the treatment group received an intramuscular injection of acepromazine (0.093 mg/kg±0.003 SEM; n=8) while animals in the control group (n=8) did not receive tranquilizer. Heart rate and body temperature, as well as hematologic and biochemical indicators of stress, were used to evaluate effect of the neuroleptic over 3 hr. Heart rate decreased over time after capture in both groups (P<0.05), but stabilized sooner in the treated roe deer (75 min after capture) than in the controls (105 min after capture). Body temperature decreased over 45 min and then stabilized in both groups (P<0.05). Comparisons of blood parameters revealed significantly lower red blood cell count (RBC), lymphocyte count, hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume (PCV), and serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine kinase (CK), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities in tranquilized animals compared with controls (at least P<0.05). A reduction in PCV, lymphocyte count, and serum cortisol concentrations (at least P<0.05) and an increase in serum creatinine levels (P<0.05) were recorded over time in control animals, while a reduction in RBC and hemoglobin concentration (at least P<0.05) and an increase in serum urea concentrations (P<0.05) over time were observed in the treated group. Finally, a decrease in serum lactate and potassium levels and an increase in CK, AST, ALT, and LDH activities were recorded over time in both groups. Results obtained showed the suitability of using acepromazine in capture operations in order to reduce stress response and prevent its adverse effects in roe deer. The beneficial effect was not only due to the sedative effect of acepromazine, but also to peripheral vasodilatation.

EFFECT OF VENIPUNCTURE SITE ON HEMATOLOGIC AND SERUM BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS IN MARGINATED TORTOISE (TESTUDO MARGINATA)

Blood samples were obtained from the dorsal coccygeal vein and the brachial vein of five adult (four females and one male) and two subadult males of marginated tortoise (Testudo marginata) and hematologic and biochemical parameters were compared. Significant differences were found for red blood cell count, hematocrit, hemoglobin concentration, total proteins, uric acid, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, calcium, and phosphorus, which were greater in the brachial vein samples. Hemodilution due to lymph was observed when collecting blood from the dorsal coccygeal vein, and it is thought to be the cause of the differences found. This research documented that the brachial vein is a more reliable and consistent venipuncture site than dorsal coccygeal vein in marginated tortoise.

Presence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum DNA in the brain of wild birds

Toxoplasma gondii infections are prevalent in many avian species and can cause mortality in some bird hosts. Although T. gondii has been isolated from various species of birds, the role of many different species of wild birds in the epidemiology of T. gondii remains unknown. Neospora caninum, a closely related parasite to T. gondii, has been recently confirmed to infect domestic chickens and wild birds such as house sparrows (Passer domesticus). The present study reports the presence of T. gondii and N. caninum DNA by PCR in brain tissues of 14 species of wild birds from Spain. From a total of 200 samples analyzed, 12 samples (6%) were positive for T. gondii [5 Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius), 5 magpies (Pica pica), 1 black kite (Milvus migrans) and 1 Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus)], while 3 samples (1.5%) were positive for N. caninum [2 magpies and 1 common buzzard (Buteo buteo)]. This is the first report of detection of T. gondii in magpies, griffon vulture and black kite and of N. caninum in common buzzard and magpies, extending the list of natural intermediate hosts for T. gondii and N. caninum infections to these species.

Adverse Effects of Capture and Handling Little Bustard

Abstract Capturing wild animals for research or conservation purposes may cause some adverse effects, which is only acceptable if these are outweighed by conservation benefits. We used information from 3 on-going telemetry studies on the endangered little bustard (Tetrax tetrax) in Western Europe to evaluate the risk factors associated with capture and handling. Of 151 telemetered birds, 23 (15.2%) exhibited impaired mobility and coordination after release, probably related to the occurrence of capture myopathy. Among the 23 impaired birds, 10 (43.5%) died before recovering normal mobility (6.6% of all birds captured). Logistic regression analyses identified longer handling time, longer restraint time, use of cannon nets, and capture of juveniles as inducing factors for these disorders. We conclude that little bustard is fairly susceptible to suffering ataxia and paresia after release as a result of restraint associated with capture and manipulation. Researchers can reduce this risk by keeping handling and restraint time below 10–20 minutes, particularly when using cannon nets or when capturing juveniles.

Paratuberculosis in Free-Ranging Fallow Deer in Spain

Paratuberculosis was diagnosed in a population of approximately 1,000 free-ranging fallow deer (Dama dama) sampled from 1997–98 in the Regional Hunting Reserve of El Sueve (Asturias, Spain). Five of eight animals observed with diarrhea were diagnosed as having paratuberculosis on the basis of gross lesions at postmortem examination and histopathology. In two deer, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis was cultured and identified by polymerase chain reaction. Indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunodiffusion tests were used to evaluate sera from 33 adult deer from this population. All fallow deer tested were seronegative.

Border Disease Virus among Chamois, Spain

Approximately 3,000 Pyrenean chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica pyrenaica) died in northeastern Spain during 2005-2007. Border disease virus infection was identified by reverse transcription-PCR and sequencing analysis. These results implicate this virus as the primary cause of death, similar to findings in the previous epizootic in 2001.

Serosurvey of Dogs for Human, Livestock, and Wildlife Pathogens, Uganda

To the Editor: Domestic dogs live in close association with humans and livestock, participating in the transmission of diseases of zoonotic, veterinary, and conservation interest (1,2). Most households in Uganda have traditionally kept dogs for hunting and for help with herding, security, and guarding livestock. Most dogs receive no prophylactic measures (e.g., vaccinations) and roam freely; this situation exposes them to pathogens from eating garbage, rodents, and stillborn animals and other carcasses and through inhalation during scent communication. Thus, dogs are a reservoir for certain pathogens and a useful sentinel for others (3). In 2011, serum samples were obtained from 116 mixed-breed dogs during a rabies vaccination campaign in and near 3 national parks in southwestern Uganda; the dogs were >4 months of age and were voluntarily brought in by their owners (Figure, Appendix, Table). Two of the parks, Bwindi Impenetrable (BI) and Mgahinga Gorilla (MG), have some of the most biologically diverse tropical forests in eastern Africa and are home to mountain gorillas. The third park, Queen Elizabeth (QE), is home to populations of protected carnivores and ungulates. The parks lie within a densely populated rural landscape; in some areas, the population is as high as 500 persons/km2. Figure Map of Uganda showing 3 areas where a serosurvery for human and animal pathogens was conducted among dogs. 1, Queen Elizabeth National Park; 2, Bwindi Impenetrable National Park; 3, Mgahinga Gorilla National Park. Table Methodology and seroprevalence for selected pathogens in rural dogs in 3 national parks, Uganda, 2011* Of the 116 sampled dogs, 4 had been vaccinated against rabies by the authors in 2010 in QE (not included in rabies results), and 11 (all males) had been castrated by local animal healers before serum samples were obtained. The samples were used to test for seroprevalence rates to rabies virus (RABV), canine distemper virus (CDV), canine parvovirus (CPV), Leptospira interrogans, Leishmania sp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Neospora caninum (Table). Seroprevalence rates ranged from 20% to 100% (Table). CPV seroprevalence was higher in BI and QE than in MG (χ2 >12.6, p<0.001); T. gondii seroprevalence was higher in BI than in MG (Fisher p = 0.002); and RABV seroprevalence was higher in castrated than noncastrated dogs (50% vs. 10%; Fisher p = 0.005). For humans, the domestic dog is the main source of exposure to RABV. The possibility that the presence of the rabies titers in the dog serum samples was due to a previous vaccination can be ruled out because the only previous recent campaign in the area was conducted by the authors. Antibodies against RABV in apparently healthy dogs have been reported in Africa (6), and rabies seems to be not invariably fatal in dogs. Dogs that have recovered from a rabies infection are prone to shed RABV in their saliva for long periods (7). Antibodies against RABV were more frequently found in castrated dogs. This finding may be due to an increase in virus-related deaths among noncastrated dogs; such dogs tend to be more aggressive and to roam, so they may come more frequently into contact with pathogenic RABV strains. Results indicate that both CDV and CPV are actively circulating in the studied dog populations. High CDV seroprevalence rates have been reported among other rural dog populations in Africa (8). Sick, debilitated pups are at high risk for predation by wild carnivores, so spillover may take place. A dog population exhibiting similar characteristics to the population we studied was believed to be the origin of the 1994 CDV epidemic among Serengeti wildlife (8). Furthermore, carnivores use feces for scent communication, so the probability of infection by CPV in wild carnivores in the study area may also be high. In developing countries, leptospirosis is emerging as a major public health problem and also causes enormous economic losses because of disease in livestock (9). The most commonly detected serovars in this study were those that have rats and dogs as reservoirs (Table​(Table).). Visceral leishmaniasis in humans is also a major health problem in several areas of eastern Africa, where the number of cases has dramatically increased during the past 20 years. Transmission of Leishmania donovani in eastern Africa may take place through anthroponotic or zoonotic cycles, although, to our knowledge, no reservoir host had been identified (10). The mean T. gondii seroprevalence detected during this survey appears to be the highest reported for dogs worldwide. This protozoon has implications for human and animal health, and dogs, who probably become infected with T. gondii when eating raw meat, are a good sentinel for environmental contamination by this parasite. On the other hand, dogs serve as the definitive host for N. caninum, which is a major cause of abortions in cattle and causes economic losses wherever it is enzootic. Some of these diseases may also have implications for the conservation of endangered mountain gorillas. Diseases such as leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, and especially, rabies could be fatal for gorillas, and there are unpublished reports of fights between hunting dogs and gorillas. Our work should serve as a first step toward the establishment of preventive strategies for improvements in the health of humans and domestic animals living in rural Uganda and for the health of the country’s unique wildlife. Tracing the role of dogs in the cycle of the studied pathogens is crucial for the design of control programs.

Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) carriage in different free-living wild animal species in Spain

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a life-threatening pathogen in humans and its presence in animals is a public health concern. The aim of this study was to measure the prevalence of MRSA in free-living wild animals. Samples from red deer (n=273), Iberian ibex (n=212), Eurasian Griffon vulture (n=40) and wild boar (n=817) taken from different areas in Spain between June 2008 and November 2011 were analyzed. Characterization of the isolates was performed by spa typing, multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. A low prevalence of MRSA was found with 13 isolates obtained from 12 animals (0.89%; 95% CI: 0.46-1.56). All MRSA sequence types belonged to ST398 (t011 and t1451) and ST1 (t127). Genotypes and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns (tetracycline resistance in ST398 and clindamycin-erythromycin-tetracycline resistance in ST1) suggest that the MRSA found probably originated in livestock (ST398) or humans (ST1). This is the first report of MRSA carriers in free-living wild animals in Europe. Although our data showed that MRSA prevalence is currently low, free-living wild animals might act as reservoir and represent a potential risk for human health.

Antibodies to selected pathogens in wild boar (Sus scrofa) from Catalonia (NE Spain)

From 2004 to 2007, blood samples from 273 healthy wild boars (Sus scrofa), culled during the hunting season, were obtained in three areas of Catalonia (NE Spain): Pyrenees, Sant Llorenç del Munt i l’Obac Natural Park (SLM), and Ports de Tortosa i Beseit National Hunting Reserve (PTB). We investigated the presence of antibodies against classical swine fever virus (CSFV), African swine fever virus (ASFV), porcine vesicular disease virus (PVDV), porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus (PRRSV), Aujeszky’s disease virus (ADV), porcine influenza A virus (PIV), porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), porcine parvovirus (PPV), Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Salmonella spp., and Toxoplasma gondii. Four wild boars were suspicious for CSFV, but the infection was discarded with a virus neutralization test, and infection with a border disease virus was confirmed. Negative results were obtained against ASFV and PVDV. Antibodies were detected against PRRSV (3%), ADV (0.8%), PIV (6.4%), PCV2 (64.6%), PPV (54.7%), M. hyopneumoniae (26.6%), E. rhusiopathiae (5.3%), Salmonella spp. (11.3%), and T. gondii (43.5%). In SLM, we detected a higher seroprevalence for PIV and M. hyopneumoniae and a lower seroprevalence for E. rhusiopathiae than in the other two areas. In PTB, seroprevalence was higher for PPV, Salmonella spp., and PCV2. Adult wild boar displayed higher seroprevalence for PPV, PIV, and M. hyopneumoniae, whereas presence of antibodies for Salmonella spp. was higher in juveniles compared with adults and piglets.

Capture Myopathy in Little Bustards after Trapping and Marking

Four little bustards (Tetrax tetrax) (one adult and three juvenile males), captured with leg nooses and fitted with a backpack radiotag, died after capture. The first bird was found after 16 days with its left foot caught in the harness and died after 1 day. The other birds showed symptoms of capture myopathy after release, such as the difficulty or inability to fly and/or walk. They died after 5, 6, and 8 days, respectively. At necropsy, muscles affected in all cases were those from the legs, and these were diffusely pale and dull, with a soft friable texture. Microscopically these muscles had multiple foci of myofiber fragmentation, loss of striation, and necrosis; a mononuclear cell infiltrate was observed in muscle from two birds. These findings suggest the little bustard is susceptible to capture myopathy and that caution should be exercised during its capture and handling.