J. Hiroshi Morisaki

Mycobacterium marinum Escapes from Phagosomes and Is Propelled by Actin-based Motility

Mycobacteria are responsible for a number of human and animal diseases and are classical intracellular pathogens, living inside macrophages rather than as free-living organisms during infection. Numerous intracellular pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, Shigella flexneri, and Rickettsia rickettsii, exploit the host cytoskeleton by using actin-based motility for cell to cell spread during infection. Here we show that Mycobacterium marinum, a natural pathogen of fish and frogs and an occasional pathogen of humans, is capable of actively inducing actin polymerization within macrophages. M. marinum that polymerized actin were free in the cytoplasm and propelled by actin-based motility into adjacent cells. Immunofluorescence demonstrated the presence of host cytoskeletal proteins, including the Arp2/3 complex and vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein, throughout the actin tails. In contrast, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein localized exclusively at the actin-polymerizing pole of M. marinum. These findings show that M. marinum can escape into the cytoplasm of infected macrophages, where it can recruit host cell cytoskeletal factors to induce actin polymerization leading to direct cell to cell spread.

Novel antibody–antibiotic conjugate eliminates intracellular S. aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is considered to be an extracellular pathogen. However, survival of S. aureus within host cells may provide a reservoir relatively protected from antibiotics, thus enabling long-term colonization of the host and explaining clinical failures and relapses after antibiotic therapy. Here we confirm that intracellular reservoirs of S. aureus in mice comprise a virulent subset of bacteria that can establish infection even in the presence of vancomycin, and we introduce a novel therapeutic that effectively kills intracellular S. aureus. This antibody–antibiotic conjugate consists of an anti-S. aureus antibody conjugated to a highly efficacious antibiotic that is activated only after it is released in the proteolytic environment of the phagolysosome. The antibody–antibiotic conjugate is superior to vancomycin for treatment of bacteraemia and provides direct evidence that intracellular S. aureus represents an important component of invasive infections.

Requirement for kasB in Mycobacterium mycolic acid biosynthesis, cell wall impermeability and intracellular survival: implications for therapy

Mycobacterium tuberculosis infects one‐third of the worlds population and causes two million deaths annually. The unusually low permeability of its cell wall contributes to the ability of M. tuberculosis to grow within host macrophages, a property required for pathogenesis of infection. Mycobacterium marinum is an established model for discovering genes involved in mycobacterial infection. Mycobacterium marinum mutants with transposon insertions in the β‐ketoacyl‐acyl carrier protein synthase B gene (kasB) grew poorly in macrophages, although growth in vitro was unaffected. Detailed analyses by thin‐layer chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy, and chemical degradations showed that the kasB mutants synthesize mycolic acids that are 2–4 carbons shorter than wild type; the defect was localized to the proximal portion of the meromycolate chain. In addition, these mutants showed a significant (∼30%) reduction in the abundance of keto‐mycolates, with a slight compensatory increase of both α‐ and methoxy‐mycolates. Despite these small changes in mycolate length and composition, the kasB mutants exhibited strikingly altered cell wall permeability, leading to a marked increase in susceptibility to lipophilic antibiotics and the host antimicrobial molecules defensin and lysozyme. The abnormalities of the kasB mutants were fully complemented by expressing M. tuberculosis kasB, but not by the closely related gene kasA. These studies identify kasB as a novel target for therapeutic intervention in mycobacterial diseases.

ESX-1-dependent cytolysis in lysosome secretion and inflammasome activation during mycobacterial infection.

Exocytosis of lysosomes from macrophages has been described as a response to microbial cytotoxins and haemolysins, as well as for releasing pro‐inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)‐1β and IL‐18 during inflammasome activation. The mycobacterial ESX‐1 secretion system, encoded in part by the Region of Difference‐1, is a virulence factor necessary for phagosome escape and host cell lysis by a contact‐dependent haemolysin in Mycobacterium marinum. Here we show that ESX‐1 from M. marinum and M. tuberculosis is required for Ca2+‐dependent induction of lysosome secretion from macrophages. Mycobacteria‐induced lysosome secretion was concurrent to release of IL‐1β and IL‐18, dependent on phagocytosis of bacteria containing ESX‐1. Synthesis but not release of IL‐1β and IL‐18 occurred in response to dead bacilli and bacteria lacking ESX‐1, indicating that only cytokine release was regulated by ESX‐1. Release of these cytokines and exocytosis of lysosomes were independent of intracellular mycobacterial growth, yet correlated with mycobacteria‐encoded haemolytic activity, demonstrating a parallel pathway for the two responses. We further identified inflammasome components caspase‐1, ASC and NALP3, but not Ipaf, required for release of IL‐1β and IL‐18. Collectively, these results reveal a role for ESX‐1 in triggering secretion of lysosomes, as well as release of IL‐1β and IL‐18 during mycobacteria infection.

Cell vacuolation caused by Vibrio cholerae hemolysin.

ABSTRACT Non-O1 strains of Vibrio cholerae implicated in gastroenteritis and diarrhea generally lack virulence determinants such as cholera toxin that are characteristic of epidemic strains; the factors that contribute to their virulence are not understood. Here we report that at least one-third of diarrhea-associated nonepidemicV. cholerae strains from Mexico cause vacuolation of cultured Vero cells. Detailed analyses indicated that this vacuolation was related to that caused by aerolysin, a pore-forming toxin ofAeromonas; it involved primarily the endoplasmic reticulum at early times (∼1 to 4 h after exposure), and resulted in formation of large, acidic, endosome-like multivesicular vacuoles (probably autophagosomes) only at late times (∼16 h). In contrast to vacuolation caused by Helicobacter pylori VacA protein, that induced by V. cholerae was exacerbated by agents that block vacuolar proton pumping but not by endosome-targeted weak bases. It caused centripetal redistribution of endosomes, reflecting cytoplasmic alkalinization. The gene for V. choleraevacuolating activity was cloned and was found to correspond tohlyA, the structural gene for hemolysin. HlyA protein is a pore-forming toxin that causes ion leakage and, ultimately, eukaryotic cell lysis. Thus, a distinct form of cell vacuolation precedes cytolysis at low doses of hemolysin. We propose that this vacuolation, in itself, contributes to the virulence of V. choleraestrains, perhaps by perturbing intracellular membrane trafficking or ion exchange in target cells and thereby affecting local intestinal inflammatory or other defense responses.

Role for Plastin in Host Defense Distinguishes Integrin Signaling from Cell Adhesion and Spreading

Integrin ligation activates both cell adhesion and signal transduction, in part through reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton. Plastins (also known as fimbrins) are actin-crosslinking proteins of the cortical cytoskeleton present in all cells and conserved from yeast to mammals. Here we show that plastin-deficient polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) are deficient in killing the bacterial pathogen Staphylococcus aureus in vivo and in vitro, despite normal phagocytosis. Like integrin beta2-deficient PMN, plastin-deficient PMN cannot generate an adhesion-dependent respiratory burst, because of markedly diminished integrin-dependent syk activation. Unlike beta2(-/-) PMN, plastin-deficient PMN adhere and spread normally. Deficiency of plastin thus separates the classical integrin receptor functions of adhesion and spreading from intracellular signal transduction.

Role for lysosomal enzyme β-hexosaminidase in the control of mycobacteria infection

The pathogenic mycobacteria that cause tuberculosis (TB) and TB-like diseases in humans and animals elude sterilizing immunity by residing within an intracellular niche in host macrophages, where they are protected from microbicidal attack. Recent studies have emphasized microbial mechanisms for evasion of host defense; less is known about mycobactericidal mechanisms that remain intact during initial infection. To better understand macrophage mechanisms for restricting mycobacteria growth, we examined Mycobacterium marinum infection of Drosophila S2 cells. Among ≈1,000 host genes examined by RNAi depletion, the lysosomal enzyme β-hexosaminidase was identified as an important factor in the control of mycobacterial infection. The importance of β-hexosaminidase for restricting mycobacterial growth during mammalian infections was confirmed in macrophages from β-hexosaminidase knockout mice. β-Hexosaminidase was characterized as a peptidoglycan hydrolase that surprisingly exerts its mycobactericidal effect at the macrophage plasma membrane during mycobacteria-induced secretion of lysosomes. Thus, secretion of lysosomal enzymes is a mycobactericidal mechanism that may have a more general role in host defense.

Global Gene Expression of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 During Human and Mouse Infection

Little is known about the expression of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) genes during infection conditions. Here, we described the transcriptome of the clinical MRSA strain USA300 derived from human cutaneous abscesses, and compared it with USA300 bacteria derived from infected kidneys in a mouse model. Remarkable similarity between the transcriptomes allowed us to identify genes encoding multiple proteases and toxins, and iron- and peptide-transporter molecules, which are upregulated in both infections and are likely important for establishment of infection. We also showed that disruption of the global transcriptional regulators agr and sae prevents in vivo upregulation of many toxins and proteases, protecting mice from lethal infection dose, and hinting at the role of these transcriptional regulators in the pathology of MRSA infection.

Conserved mechanisms of Mycobacterium marinum pathogenesis within the environmental amoeba, Acanthamoeba castellanii

ABSTRACT Mycobacterium marinum is a waterborne mycobacterial pathogen. Due to their common niche, protozoa likely represent natural hosts for M. marinum. We demonstrate that the ESX-1 secretion system is required for M. marinum pathogenesis and that M. marinum utilizes actin-based motility in amoebae. Therefore, at least two virulence pathways used by M. marinum in macrophages are conserved during M. marinum infection of amoebae.

Novel Staphylococcal Glycosyltransferases SdgA and SdgB Mediate Immunogenicity and Protection of Virulence-Associated Cell Wall Proteins

Infection of host tissues by Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis requires an unusual family of staphylococcal adhesive proteins that contain long stretches of serine-aspartate dipeptide-repeats (SDR). The prototype member of this family is clumping factor A (ClfA), a key virulence factor that mediates adhesion to host tissues by binding to extracellular matrix proteins such as fibrinogen. However, the biological siginificance of the SDR-domain and its implication for pathogenesis remain poorly understood. Here, we identified two novel bacterial glycosyltransferases, SdgA and SdgB, which modify all SDR-proteins in these two bacterial species. Genetic and biochemical data demonstrated that these two glycosyltransferases directly bind and covalently link N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) moieties to the SDR-domain in a step-wise manner, with SdgB appending the sugar residues proximal to the target Ser-Asp repeats, followed by additional modification by SdgA. GlcNAc-modification of SDR-proteins by SdgB creates an immunodominant epitope for highly opsonic human antibodies, which represent up to 1% of total human IgG. Deletion of these glycosyltransferases renders SDR-proteins vulnerable to proteolysis by human neutrophil-derived cathepsin G. Thus, SdgA and SdgB glycosylate staphylococcal SDR-proteins, which protects them against host proteolytic activity, and yet generates major eptopes for the human anti-staphylococcal antibody response, which may represent an ongoing competition between host and pathogen.