Jae T. Patterson

Learner regulated knowledge of results during the acquisition of multiple timing goals

The purpose of the present experiment was to examine the advantages of a learner controlled KR schedule during the acquisition of three novel sequential timing tasks. The self-regulated group requested KR when necessary during the acquisition period while participants in the yoked condition replicated the KR schedule of a self-regulated counterpart, without the choice. The self-regulated condition demonstrated superior performance in retention and transfer, with a relative KR frequency similar for all three sequences. Similar to Chiviacowsky and Wulf (2002), learners also demonstrated a preference for KR after perceived good trials, independent of defined task difficulty. Thus, the results extend previous research by suggesting a generalized learning strategy by performers acquiring multiple motor task goals.

Understanding Self-Controlled Motor Learning Protocols through the Self-Determination Theory

The purpose of the present review was to provide a theoretical understanding of the learning advantages underlying a self-controlled practice context through the tenets of the self-determination theory (SDT). Three micro-theories within the macro-theory of SDT (Basic psychological needs theory, Cognitive Evaluation Theory, and Organismic Integration Theory) are used as a framework for examining the current self-controlled motor learning literature. A review of 26 peer-reviewed, empirical studies from the motor learning and medical training literature revealed an important limitation of the self-controlled research in motor learning: that the effects of motivation have been assumed rather than quantified. The SDT offers a basis from which to include measurements of motivation into explanations of changes in behavior. This review suggests that a self-controlled practice context can facilitate such factors as feelings of autonomy and competence of the learner, thereby supporting the psychological needs of the learner, leading to long term changes to behavior. Possible tools for the measurement of motivation and regulation in future studies are discussed. The SDT not only allows for a theoretical reinterpretation of the extant motor learning research supporting self-control as a learning variable, but also can help to better understand and measure the changes occurring between the practice environment and the observed behavioral outcomes.

Self-Control of Feedback During Motor Learning: Accounting for the Absolute Amount of Feedback Using a Yoked Group With Self-Control Over Feedback

ABSTRACT A traditional control group yoked to a group that self-controls their reception of feedback receives feedback in the same relative and absolute manner. This traditional control group typically does not learn the task as well as the self-control group. Although the groups are matched for the amount of feedback they receive, the information is provided on trials in which the individual may not request feedback if he or she were provided the opportunity. Similarly, individuals may not receive feedback on trials for which it would be a beneficial learning experience. Subsequently, the mismatch between the provision of feedback and the potential learning opportunity leads to a decrement in retention. The present study was designed to examine motor learning for a yoked group with the same absolute amount of feedback, but who could self-control when they received feedback. Increased mental processing of error detection and correction was expected for the participants in the yoked self-control group because of their choice to employ a limited resource in the form of a decreasing amount of feedback opportunities. Participants in the yoked with self-control group committed fewer errors than the self-control group in retention and the traditional yoked group in both the retention and time transfer blocks. The results suggest that the yoked with self-control group was able to produce efficient learning effects and can be a viable control group for further motor learning studies.

Decreasing the proportion of self-control trials during the acquisition period does not compromise the learning advantages in a self-controlled context.

The present experiment examined the learning effects of participants self-controlling their receipt of knowledge of results (KR) on all or half of their acquisition trials (50%). For participants who were provided 50% self-control, the first half of their acquisition period consisted of receiving KR on all trials, or according to a faded-KR schedule. Participants practiced a sequential timing task. The results showed that independent of practice condition, participants who self-controlled their KR during the acquisition period demonstrated superior performance compared to the respective yoked conditions in the retention and transfer portion of the experiment. These results extend previous research by suggesting that decreasing the proportion of self-control trials does not compromise learning in a self-controlled context.

Self-Regulated Frequency of Augmented Information in Skill Learning

The authors examined the effects of self-regulating task information, identical in content, either before (proactive) or after (retroactive) a motor action. Participants were required to learn unique typographical script used to enter data into a personal data assistant. Consistent with previous findings, presenting task information proactively during acquisition facilitated performance, but presenting task information retroactively resulted in superior learning as measured in retention tests. However, those who self-regulated proactive task information demonstrated learning that was equivalent to those who received retroactive task information. These results suggest that when task information is equated, the learning benefits associated with self-regulation are independent of the timing of when the augmented information is made available during practise.

Self-controlled knowledge of results: Age-related differences in motor learning, strategies, and error detection

Research has demonstrated that a self-controlled KR schedule is advantageous for motor learning; however, the usefulness of a self-controlled KR context in older adults remains unknown. To address this gap in knowledge, we examined whether (1) the learning benefits of a self-controlled KR schedule are modulated by the age of the learner; (2) practicing in a self-controlled KR context concurrently strengthens the learners error detection mechanism, and (3) the KR strategy during acquisition changes as a function of practice trials completed and age. As a function of age, participants were quasirandomly assigned to either the self-control or yoked group resulting in four experimental groups (Self-Young, Yoked-Young, Self-Old, and Yoked-Old). The results revealed the Self-Young group: (1) demonstrated superior retention performance than all other groups (p<.05); (2) was more accurate in estimating motor performance than all other groups during retention (p<.05), and (3) self-reported a switch in their strategy for requesting KR during acquisition based on the number of practice trials completed. Collectively, our findings suggest that older adults do not demonstrate the same learning benefits of a self-controlled KR context as younger adults which may be attributed to differences in KR strategies.

Self-controlled KR schedules: Does repetition order matter?

The impact of an experimenter-defined repetition schedule on the utility of a self-controlled KR context during motor skill acquisition was examined. Participants were required to learn three novel spatial-temporal tasks in either a random or blocked repetition schedule with or without the opportunity to control their KR. Results from the retention period showed that participants provided control over their KR schedule in a random repetition schedule demonstrated superior learning. However, performance measures from the transfer test showed that, independent of repetition schedule, learners provided the opportunity to control their KR schedule demonstrated superior transfer performance compared to their yoked counterparts. The dissociated impact of repetition schedule and self-controlled KR schedules on retention and transfer is discussed.

Knowing the good from the bad: Does being aware of KR content matter?

Previous researchers have suggested that providing KR based on only successful (i.e., good trials) trials enhances learning compared to providing KR on unsuccessful trials (i.e., poor trials). However, the learners were unaware the content of their KR display was based entirely on their successful or unsuccessful trials. Thus, the purpose of the present experiment was to determine whether learning after providing KR after relatively good trials would persist if participants were aware of their KR content. All participants propelled a slider with their non-dominant hand to a pre-determined distance on a linear slide. Participants vision was occluded before, during and after their motor action. Similar to previous research, all participants were provided KR on three trials in a series of 6 trial blocks regarding their three best (KR good) or three worst (KR poor) trials in the block, and were either aware (good-aware; poor-aware) or unaware (good-unaware, poor-unaware) of content in their KR display. The retention results showed the groups aware of their KR content demonstrated superior learning to the groups unaware of their KR content. These findings suggest that in addition to the motivational components of KR, awareness of the KR content directly impacted motor skill acquisition not whether KR was presented on good trials or poor trials.

Accuracy of Subjective Performance Appraisal is Not Modulated by the Method Used by the Learner During Motor Skill Acquisition

The present experiment examined whether the method of subjectively appraising motor performance during skill acquisition would differentially strengthen performance appraisal capabilities and subsequent motor learning. Thirty-six participants (18 men and 18 women; M age = 20.8 years, SD = 1.0) learned to execute a serial key-pressing task at a particular overall movement time (2550 ms). Participants were randomly separated into three groups: the Generate group estimated their overall movement time then received knowledge of results of their actual movement time; the Choice group selected their perceived movement time from a list of three alternatives; the third group, the Control group, did not self-report their perceived movement time and received knowledge of results of their actual movement time on every trial. All groups practiced 90 acquisition trials and 30 no knowledge of results trials in a delayed retention test. Results from the delayed retention test showed that both methods of performance appraisal (Generate and Choice) facilitated superior motor performance and greater accuracy in assessing their actual motor performance compared with the control condition. Therefore, the processing required for accurate appraisal of performance was strengthened, independent of performance appraisal method.

Measuring Investment in Learning Can Electrocardiogram Provide an Indication of Cognitive Effort During Learning

Heart rate variability (i.e., low frequency:high frequency ratio) was measured to differentiate invested cognitive effort during the acquisition and retention of a novel task. Participants (12 male, M = 25.1 year, SD = 3.6; 12 female, M = 22.8 year, SD = 1.1) were required to produce Braille equivalents of English letter primes on a standardized keyboard in proactive or retroactive conditions (groups, each n = 12). The correct Braille response was either provided before (i.e., proactively) or after (i.e., retroactively) the participant’s response. During acquisition, participants in the proactive group demonstrated shorter study time, greater recall success, and reported lower cognitive investment. Participants in the proactive and retroactive groups did not statistically differ in heart rate variability. For retention, the retroactive group showed greater recall success, lower perceived cognitive effort investment, and lower heart rate variability. The results highlight the usefulness of heart rate variability in discriminating the cognitive effort invested for a recently acquired skill.