James Higham

Tourism, sport and seasons: the challenges and potential of overcoming seasonality in the sport and tourism sectors

Abstract The modern history of the tourism industry is one of rapid change and mass market development. This point, which has been stated ad infinitum in the tourism literature, demonstrates many interesting parallels with the modern development of sport. Both have been opened relatively recently to mass participation. In the process both have sought to mitigate the shackles of seasonality. One aspect of the professional development of sport has been the demise of the sport season. This article explores the changing seasonal aspect of sport and considers the implications for the tourism industry. The professional development of Rugby Union in New Zealand is used as a case study. Primary interview transcriptions are used to explore the changing relationship between sport and tourism seasonality. The authors conclude that links between sport and tourism are becoming more clearly defined. The hitherto vexing issue of tourism seasonality can be mitigated by tourism managers with careful consideration of changing sport seasons. The potential for mutually beneficial links between sport and tourism administrations is upheld.

Sport Tourism: a Framework for Research

Sport-based travel has grown dramatically over the past two decades but it has only recently become the focus of concentrated academic inquiry. This paper contributes to the emerging body of literature by conceptualising sport in the context of tourism’s activity, spatial and temporal dimensions. A definition of sport tourism based on these dimensions and featuring a sociological perspective of sporting activity is presented. The distinguishing features of sport as a tourist attraction are then highlighted through the use of Leiper’s systems model of attractions. Finally, the paper proposes a framework which highlights a series of research questions that emerge as the relationships between the fundamental dimensions of sport tourism are systematically explored. Copyright # 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Sustainable Market Orientation: A New Approach to Managing Marketing Strategy

Market orientation has been a foundation of corporate marketing strategy since the middle of the last century. There is a need for a broader conceptualization of market orientation and a new corporate marketing model is proposed: sustainable market orientation (SMO). Taking a macromarketing perspective, the new conceptualization proposes the use of three key sustainable development objectives in corporate marketing strategy; economic, social, and ecological sustainability. Corporate benefits from a SMO are discussed, a model for empirical testing is presented, and a range of research opportunities are discussed.

Tourists and albatrosses: the dynamics of tourism at the Northern Royal Albatross Colony, Taiaroa Head, New Zealand.

Abstract Wildlife tourism attractions in New Zealand, like those elsewhere in the world, have experienced rapid growth in demand since the mid-1980s in association with the ecotourism phenomenon. Fortunately, the body of research on the impacts of tourism upon wildlife, both domestic and international, is beginning to reflect this growth. This article presents a consideration of wildlife tourism as it has developed in the New Zealand context. Specifically, it addresses the complexities of understanding the impacts of non-consumptive wildlife tourism. This term describes tourist engagements with wildlife that take place in the habitat of the focal species without the deliberate disturbance or removal of that species. To this end, the case of the North Royal Albatross Colony, Taiaroa Head, New Zealand, is examined. Various secondary data sources are employed to test the application of Duffus and Deardens ( Biological Conservation 1990, 53, 213–231) conceptual framework to this bird colony, with all components of the framework proving to be upheld. It is concluded that site users, contact wildlife species and the natural habitat of the focal species all demonstrate various dimensions of change over time. Several conclusions are drawn from this study. First, that in the absence of deliberate management intervention, wildlife tourism attractions evolve over time to the detriment of both the visitor experience and the focal wildlife species. Secondly, the impacts of tourism upon wildlife transcend tolerance. In other words, wildlife species may appear to be perfectly tolerant of tourists while significant impacts still occur. Thirdly, the application of the core components of Duffus and Deardens framework dictates that wildlife impact research is not transferable, but rather research of this nature is both site- and species-specific. Finally, it is recommended that research in this domain should involve long-term monitoring of wildlife impacts. Many significant impacts go undetected in the absence of time series data. Failing this, research into the impacts of non-consumptive wildlife tourism must give consideration of the possible long-term biological consequences of tourist engagements with wildlife species.

Psychological and behavioural approaches to understanding and governing sustainable mobility

This paper introduces and explores the psychological and social factors that both contribute to and inhibit behaviour change vis-à-vis sustainable (tourist) mobility. It is based on papers presented at the Freiburg 2012 workshop. Specifically, it reviews climate change attitudes and perceptions, the psychological benefits of tourism mobilities, addictive elements of mobility and social norming effects, the attitude–behaviour gap (i.e. cognitive dissonance between understandings of, and responses to, climate change), the psychology of modal shifts, the psychology of travel speed/time and psychological explanations for the perceived importance of long distance travel. It notes that anthropogenic climate change is an inescapable reality and that tourisms share of greenhouse gas emissions appears set to rise substantially. There is little prospect of technical solutions adequately addressing this problem. The paper concludes that, while a comprehensive understanding of tourist psychology is necessary to inform policy-makers, it alone will be insufficient to achieve emission reductions, and bring tourism to a climatically sustainable pathway, if treated in isolation. Radical change in the structures of provision is also necessary. That change may take the form of infrastructure planning, including financial and economic infrastructure (e.g. taxation regimes and emission trading schemes) for sustainable mobility.

The Human Dimensions of Whale Watching: An Analysis Based on Viewing Platforms

Visitor perceptions of the impacts of cetacean-based tourism from land-based and boat-based platforms are not well understood. Data from on-site surveys (n=633) and observational data were obtained at boat and land-based whale viewing platforms in the San Juan Islands, USA during the summer of 2000. Whale watchers at both platforms expressed concerns regarding adverse impacts on whales due to whale watching activities. Land-based whale watchers, however, were significantly more concerned about the presence of boats disturbing not only the whales, but also their own experiences. In particular, the noise and maneuvering of whale-watching boats were identified as issues of concern. The findings suggest that site-specific strategies for managing whale watching are necessary. Possible strategies include limiting the number of boats and the frequency and duration of boat interactions with whales. Furthermore, platform-specific visitor education programs may be useful for helping to address viewers’ concerns.

Sport, Tourism and Authenticity

Abstract The thesis underpinning the theoretical discussions presented in this paper is that sport has unique advantages over other types of cultural tourist attractions when considered in the context of commodification and authenticity. Leipers tourist attraction system is used to situate sport as an attraction and to argue that sport is a reflection of local culture. Sport attractions are then critically considered in relation to the concepts of commodification and authenticity. Key characteristics of sport attractions include: (1) the uncertainty of outcomes; (2) the role of athletic display; (3) the kinaesthetic nature of sport activities; and (4) the visceral nature of many types of sporting engagements. The combination of these traits increases the likelihood that sport attractions are, more than many other types of tourist attractions, able to withstand the processes of commodification and, therefore, are more likely to provide sport tourists with authentic experiences.

Urban ecotourism: a contradiction in terms?

This article examines recent developments in the New Zealand ecotourism sector that highlight the limitations of definitions of ecotourism. It considers the contemporary development of commercial ecotourism operations in urban contexts in New Zealand. The phenomenon of urban ecotourism demonstrates various inherent contradictions relating to definitions of ecotourism. Selected definitions are considered in an attempt to review an extensive and voluminous, but important, literature. Three case studies are then presented to demonstrate the praiseworthy nature of ecotourism development initiatives in urban contexts. The authors conclude that notwithstanding the contradictions, urban ecotourism developments are more able than most to fulfil the lofty ambitions to which ecotourism operators are required to aspire.

An integrated and adaptive management model to address the long-term sustainability of tourist interactions with cetaceans

Rapid growth in demand for tourist interactions with cetaceans in the wild constitutes a challenge to management. Short-term animal behaviour changes can have long-term biological consequences for individual animals and populations. This paper reviews the whale-watching management context, describing the interplay of the macro (global), meso (national/regional) and micro-level (local/site specific) policy, planning and management settings. Here, an integrated and adaptive management model based largely upon the delineation and monitoring of limits of acceptable change (LAC) parameters is proposed to address current shortcomings in the long-term sustainable management of whale-watching activities. Although no integrated management framework currently exists, a comprehensive management approach must be developed and applied in the interests of the long-term sustainable management of tourist interactions with cetaceans in the wild. The proposed management model highlights the importance of integrating multiple stakeholder perspectives in a way that is both research-informed and adaptive. Beyond tourist interactions with cetaceans, this management framework could be applied to a wide range of wildlife management contexts.

Ecotourism Visitor Experiences in Aotearoa/New Zealand: Challenging the Environmental Values of Visitors in Pursuit of Pro-environmental Behaviour

This paper reports on a research project that examined ecotourism visitor experiences in Aotearoa/New Zealand and whether or not those experiences challenged visitors to consider environmental issues. Twelve study sites in three nationwide geographical clusters were drawn from a comprehensive database of 479 eco/nature tourism operations based on each operation fulfilling 14 selection criteria. The operations offer maximum variation in the ecotourism experiences that they provide. The qualitative research methods implemented at these sites are described. Observational and interview data were employed to critically assess the visitor experiences reported at the study sites. Five important aspects of the visitor experience emerged from data analysis. These were considered to be effective in drawing visitor attention to environmental issues of relevance. The results indicate that ecotourism visitor experiences may be an effective medium via which environmental values may be influenced.