Jikkemien Vertonghen

Experiences of children in martial arts

Abstract Contrasting images seem to appear regarding the effect of martial arts involvement in general and with regard to youth in particular. On the one hand, there are several reports referring to medical and moral concerns with a focus on assumed negative effects to personal and social well-being. On the other hand, there is a common belief that martial arts practice is associated with positive socio-psychological outcomes. To date, conclusive evidence regarding the effect of martial arts remains scarce, as not all research findings point in the same direction. In addition, little is known about the way children experience their martial arts involvement. Through the use of a qualitative research methodology, 40 children between the age of eight and twelve years in five different martial arts were interviewed in-depth regarding their experiences and views on participation motives, training, competition and behaviour. In general, findings seem to support the relationship between martial arts practice and positive socio-psychological responses. It is concluded that analysing the experiences of children in martial arts should take different approaches of martial arts practice into account.

Teaching in martial arts: The analysis and identification of teaching approaches in youth martial arts practice

Background It is believed that martial arts can produce educational opportunities for youth. Therefore, some critical success factors have to be taken into account. One of these factors is considered as the type of guidance. However in martial arts, there is a lack of research examining the role of the martial arts teacher. Therefore, a study was set up to analyse different teaching approaches used in martial arts and to develop a framework aiming to identify these teaching methods. Material/Methods: A multiple instruments research design was set up, in which 20 teachers in aikido (n=5), karate (n=10) or kick-/Thai boxing (n=5) were involved. All of them were observed during a training session (i.e., informal interactive observation). Moreover, they were interviewed before and afterwards (i.e., pre-interactive and post-interactive interviews). The pre-interactive interview guide included questions regarding (a) the goal of teaching, (b) the didactical approaches, (c) the traditional aspects of martial arts, and (d) the problems encountered during training. During the post-interactive interview all subjects were asked to point out specific aspects of their teaching approach and to respond to an instrument specifically developed for this study, which consists of seven dimensions to identify different teaching approach (i.e., TAMA, Teaching Approach in Martial arts framework). Results: Based on the total scores of TAMA, martial arts teachers were classified into three groups. Those with the lowest scores were classified as representatives of a traditional teaching approach, with medium scores as teachers using an educational sporting approach and with the highest scores as those using an efficiency approach. In short, teachers using a traditional teaching method emphasised traditional aspects and pedagogically oriented aims. Martial arts teachers situated in the educational sporting group were still focused on the traditional aspects, but considered martial arts rather more as a sport. And finally, the focus of teachers using an efficiency approach was on competition and the development of performing skills. Conclusions: Differences are clearly identified in the teaching approach used by teachers of different martial arts (i.e., aikido teachers use a traditional approach while kick-/Thai boxing teachers show an efficiency approach), as well as within one martial art (i.e., karate teachers use all three approaches). The development of TAMA was the first onset to identify different teaching approaches in martial arts. In order to generalise the results of the present study further research is recommended

A multidimensional approach to evaluate the policy effectiveness of elite sport schools in Flanders

Abstract The increasing demands of elite sports make it difficult for talented young athletes to balance school and sport. This paper investigates the multi-dimensional policy effectiveness of elite sport schools (ESSs) in secondary education in Flanders. Four hundred and eight elite athletes who graduated from an ESS, and 341 from mainstream schools, completed an online survey. The data showed no clear evidence of more effective outputs (performance), or more positive evaluation of throughputs (processes) by athletes who attended an ESS. Athletes who did not attend an ESS received less support services, but those who did receive such services were generally more satisfied. They were equally satisfied about their coaches’ expertise. Only training facilities were rated generally better in an ESS. The study concluded that evaluating effectiveness of ESS (at input-throughput-output level) requires a tailor-made, sport-specific approach. Furthermore, as ESS is only a small part of a total career, many other factors influence long-term success.

Traditional Asian martial arts and youth: Experiences of young Chinese wushu athletes

Background Traditional Asian martial arts have often been associated with positive outcomes in youth. But despite the absence of empirical evidence, especially countries with a long tradition in martial arts (such as China and Japan) have reemphasised these proclaimed positive effects. A study was set up to investigate the way how contemporary Chinese youth experience distinct aspects of wushu, the collective noun for the Chinese martial arts. Material/Methods: Data were collected among 150 youngsters (7–16 years) regarding, among other things, their views on wushu, the training sessions and their teacher. Results: Data revealed that youth’s experiences and views are not in line with the characteristics of wushu and its traditional teaching practice as described in the literature. Conclusions: In the present paper it is concluded that these youngsters seem to experience wushu as a modern sport, in which the focus is on learning technical skills rather than on ethical and spiritual cultivation.

Is international junior success a reliable predictor for international senior success in elite combat sports

Abstract Currently in the literature, there is a dearth of empirical research that confirms whether international junior success is a reliable predictor for future international senior success. Despite the uncertainty of the junior–senior relationship, federations and coaches still tend to use junior success as a predictor for long-term senior success. A range of former investigations utilising a retrospective lens has merely focused on success that athletes attained at junior level competitions. Success that was achieved at senior-level competitions but at a junior age was relatively ignored. This study explored to what extent international senior success can be predicted based on success that athletes achieved in either international junior level competitions (i.e. junior medalists) or senior competitions at a junior age (i.e. early achievers). The sample contains 4011 international male and female athletes from three combat sports (taekwondo, wrestling and boxing), who were born between 1974 and 1990 and participated in both international junior and senior-level competitions between 1990 and 2016. Gender and sport differences were compared. The results revealed that 61.4% of the junior medalists and 90.4% of the early achievers went on to win international medals at a senior age. Among the early achievers, 92.2% of the taekwondo athletes, 68.4% of the wrestling athletes and 37.9% of the boxing athletes could be reliably “predicted” to win international senior medals. The findings demonstrate that specific to the three combat sports examined, international junior success appears to be an important predictor to long-term international senior success.

‘Wushu belongs to the world’. But the gold goes to China…: The international development of the Chinese martial arts

Since the mid-1980s, China has been promoting wushu (also known as kung fu) as an international competitive sport towards Olympic recognition. But despite the efforts of the International Wushu Federation, to date, wushu has not entered the Olympics. Data were collected of countries’ medal winning performances at the World Wushu Championships since 1991. The findings of this study clearly showed China’s unchanged dominant position, thereby making it questionable if wushu has really turned into an international sport. This paper discusses two discourses that have been used to describe wushu’s international position: an enrichment discourse to emphasise the potential of wushu to deliver added value to global sports; and a compromise discourse highlighting the dangers of detraditionalisation in order to internationalise. It further attempts to analyse underlying mechanisms that may account for wushu’s current international status.

How to obtain more insight into the true nature of outcomes of youth martial arts practice

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to provide insight into the processes that produce the effects found in studies of participation by young people in martial arts. Design/methodology/approach – A review of published studies. Findings – Studies of the developmental outcomes of young people participating in martial arts produce conflicting results. While some studies refer to increased antisocial behaviour, others indicate positive developmental outcomes. This is due to a tendency to treat martial arts as a unitary phenomenon and focus on outcomes without considering mediating factors, notably the type of martial art, the type of guidance and the social background and characteristics of participants. Originality/value – The paper shows that taking into account these and other possible influencing factors will contribute to a better understanding of the true nature of outcomes of martial arts practice. It will also enable a more thought-out and accurate approach when considering these outcomes.

Mediating Factors in Martial Arts Practice: A Specific Case on Young Girls

Many martial arts popular in Western countries today (e.g. aikido, karate, tae kwon do) originated in Asia. Until the beginning of the previous century, they were mainly practised in that continent. From the early 1950s onwards, Asian martial arts became more popular in the West, which resulted in a real martial arts ‘boom’ in the early nineties (Theeboom and De Knop, 1999). Consequently, in recent decades, the practice of martial arts has become popular in many countries all over the world, as revealed by several participation studies indicating martial arts’ place on lists of most practised sports (e.g. Australia: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009; Canada: Ifedi, 2008). Also, a study of sports participation in countries of the European Union revealed that martial arts are one of the most practised sporting activities in Europe (van Bottenburg et al., 2005). Furthermore, based on national research data on sports participation in the 25 member states of the EU, the authors found that in several countries (e.g. France, Spain, Italy, Slovenia, Poland) martial arts were among the top ten most practised sports in a club-related context.