Scott Schumann

The Roles of Heuristics, Avalanche Forecast, and Risk Propensity in the Decision Making of Backcountry Skiers

Backcountry winter recreation accidents and deaths due to avalanches have grown considerably in recent decades. To better understand how individuals make decisions in avalanche terrain, this study examined the decision-making factors identified by McCammon (2004) that are said to be complicit in avalanche accidents. This study also explored risk-taking propensity and avalanche forecast variables in decision making. Results indicate that five decision-making factors, risk-taking propensity, and avalanche forecast variables influence the decision to ski a slope. Implications for how individuals make decisions in risky leisure pursuits are discussed and implications for outdoor recreation, and avalanche education are considered.

Mechanisms of Learning Transfer in Adventure Education: Qualitative Results from the NOLS Transfer Survey:

Transfer of learning from adventure programs remains of critical interest to adventure education professionals. Although some research has investigated what transfers, notably less has focused on mechanisms that might influence transfer. This paper explores the mechanisms of transfer reported by a stratified random sample of National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) alumni. The 538 participants reported that instructors (through a variety of means), inherent qualities of the adventure courses (e.g., group dynamics, natural setting), and curriculum (e.g., leadership progression) were critical mechanisms of transfer. Some of the literature-based mechanisms were not evident in the data; however, some (e.g., active learning, feedback) are inherent in adventure education. Thus, adventure education programs may inherently foster learning transfer through a variety of both data- and literature-based means. Ultimately, learning transfer is complex and highly individual; astute adventure educators should intentionally use a wide spectrum of techniques and tools, ranging from group dynamics to curriculum, when considering transfer in adventure education.

The Art of Guiding in Nature-Based Adventure Tourism – How Guides Can Create Client Value and Positive Experiences on Mountain Bike and Backcountry Ski Tours

Abstract This paper examines the ways in which guides contribute to creating value to clients. The context is nature-based adventure tourism in the specific mediums of mountain bike and backcountry ski tours in Utah and Idaho, USA. Qualitative interviews of clients and guides combined with participant observations are used to explore how guides interact with clients to increase their perceived value. Important findings are related to how guides use their knowledge about the activity, the area, safety management, as well as their organizational skills, to effectively and conveniently facilitate fun experiences with minimum risk exposure. The paper also documents guides’ contributions related to learning, relational aspects, entertainment techniques, and providing information about environmentally friendly behavior. An important theoretical contribution is the identification of how guides carefully balance thrilling and safe experiences and avoid experiences that cause anxiety. The study documents how guides can contribute to prevent negative incidents like conflicts within the client group, or possible accidents. The study indicates that there is a potential for increased contributions from guides especially related to choreographing experiences, interpreting nature, and learning of behaving environmentally.

An examination of wilderness first aid knowledge, self-efficacy, and skill retention

OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to examine the retention of wilderness first aid (WFA) knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs, and skills over time in a sample of WFA course participants. METHODS Seventy-two open enrollment (volunteer) WFA course participants were assessed at 4 months, 8 months, or 12 months after training. Changes in WFA knowledge and self-efficacy were assessed by written instruments after the course and at the follow-up interval (4, 8, or 12 months). The WFA skills were assessed by a scored medical scenario at the follow-up interval. RESULTS As the time interval increased, WFA knowledge, self-efficacy, and skill proficiency decreased. The WFA knowledge and self-efficacy beliefs were not highly correlated with skill performance. CONCLUSIONS Without additional training, regular use of the course content, or efforts to refresh thinking on key topics, the ability of WFA students to effectively apply their learning will likely decrease as time from training increases. With respect to these WFA courses, student scores on written tests did not accurately reflect competence in performing practical skills related to a medical scenario. In addition, student self-confidence in the ability to perform such skills did not strongly correlate with actual skills and ability.

Fostering Experiential Self-Regulation through Outdoor Adventure Education.

Learners thrive when they have the capacity to regulate interest and goal direction. Through direct experiences that are interesting and goal-relevant, learners can internalize and better understand their own agency in the learning process. This article further examines this premise in an outdoor adventure education (OAE) context through two interrelated studies. The aim of the first study was to investigate the potential of OAE to afford more frequent experiences that are interesting and goal-relevant. The aim of the second study was to build on the findings from the first study and determine if exposure to OAE programs might lead to more self-directed learning. The results partially support the premise that OAE can foster experiential self-regulation.

The Development and Scaling of the Teaching Outdoor Education Self-Efficacy Scale

Outdoor educator teaching self-efficacy beliefs are important to the process of teaching in the outdoors. Errors in these self-beliefs, which are one’s judgments of ability to successfully perform necessary teaching tasks, carry consequences for student learning and safety in outdoor contexts. This paper presents two studies conducted to develop a teaching outdoor education self-efficacy scale (TOE-SES). In Study 1, data were collected from 303 participants in collegiate outdoor programs. Exploratory Factor Analysis reduced a 49-item pool to a 23-item scale comprised of 5 subscales. In Study 2, data were collected from 200 National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) instructor and outdoor educator course participants. Confirmatory Factor Analysis results indicated an acceptable fit for a 22-item, 5-factor scale with strong subscale internal consistencies.

The Effect of Decision-Making Factors, Risk-Taking Propensity, and Environmental Conditions on Decision Making in Hazardous Outdoor Terrain

D espite the popularity of avalanche education courses, snow avalanches kill or injure hundreds of winter backcountry users each year (Tremper, 2001). From 1998 to 2008, there have been 308 avalanche-related fatalities in the United States and 129 in Canada (American Avalanche Association, n.d.). Experts claim that accidents are often a combination of both environmental factors and human factors (Fredston, Fesler, & Tremper, 1994). Investigation of variables present during decision-making in hazardous outdoor terrain may inform experiential educational programs designed to teach students about these factors and ultimately, increase safety in the outdoors.

The Relevance of Campus Outdoor Recreation Programs to Higher Education: A University of Utah Example

This paper illustrates the relevance of campus recreation to higher education through a University of Utah case study. Offering Utah’s Experiential Learning and Outdoor Recreation Education (U-EXPLORE) program as our exemplar, we advance four lines of thought. First, we establish the relationship between an active body and an active mind. Second, we describe the manifestation of this relationship through U-EXPLORE. Third, we discuss the practical benefits of offering campus recreation programs that include a strong educational focus. Fourth, we conclude by emphasizing why recreation in particular is an ideal context for nurturing pastimes that unite mind and body and promote lifelong human growth and development.

Improving the Accuracy of Outdoor Educators' Teaching Self-Efficacy Beliefs through Metacognitive Monitoring.

Accuracy in emerging outdoor educators’ teaching self-efficacy beliefs is critical to student safety and learning. Overinflated self-efficacy beliefs can result in delayed skilled development or inappropriate acceptance of risk. In an outdoor education context, neglecting the accuracy of teaching self-efficacy beliefs early in an educator’s development may impede one’s likelihood of being effective. Metacognitive monitoring interventions are a possible approach to help emerging outdoor educators accurately calibrate their teaching self-efficacy beliefs. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a metacognitive intervention on the accuracy of emerging outdoor educators’ teaching self-efficacy beliefs. Results indicate metacognitive monitoring appears to significantly improve the accuracy of emerging outdoor educators’ teaching self-efficacy beliefs. In contrast, control group participants appeared to consistently overestimate their likelihood of success across all domains of teaching outdoor education, thus further demonstrating the need for interventions to help emerging outdoor educators calibrate their teaching self-efficacy beliefs.

The development and scaling of the Teaching Outdoor Education Self-Efficacy Scale

Outdoor educator teaching self-efficacy beliefs are an important, yet unexamined, aspect of teaching in the outdoors. Teaching self-efficacy beliefs are self-perceptions of ability to successfully perform necessary teaching tasks. These beliefs may influence the approach or avoidance of instructional strategies, the likelihood to experiment with new teaching strategies (Allinder, 1994), and persistence amidst set-backs while teaching (Tschannen-Moran, Hoy, & Hoy, 1998). In some cases, self-efficacy beliefs can be overinflated and result in inappropriate selection of behaviors, acceptance of risk, and decreased performance (Woolfolk Hoy & Burke- Spero, 2005). Thus, in the context of outdoor education, errors in an educators teaching selfefficacy beliefs carry consequences for student learning and student safety (cf. Martin & Priest, 1986). It is critically important to attend to the accuracy of outdoor educator teacher self-efficacy beliefs during initial training phases because unrealistically positive or negative self-efficacy beliefs are commonly found to develop in teachers when they first begin their teaching careers (Cakir &Alici, 2009). Initial judgments of teaching self-efficacy are some of the most powerful influences on long-term beliefs and future behaviors (Shaughnessy, 2004). Despite the importance of attending to the accuracy of outdoor educator teaching self-efficacy beliefs, no context specific scale exists to measure these beliefs or their accuracy. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to present two studies, which develop a teaching outdoor education self-efficacy scale (TOE-SES).