Jody D. Potter

Stream denitrification across biomes and its response to anthropogenic nitrate loading

Anthropogenic addition of bioavailable nitrogen to the biosphere is increasing and terrestrial ecosystems are becoming increasingly nitrogen-saturated, causing more bioavailable nitrogen to enter groundwater and surface waters. Large-scale nitrogen budgets show that an average of about 20–25 per cent of the nitrogen added to the biosphere is exported from rivers to the ocean or inland basins, indicating that substantial sinks for nitrogen must exist in the landscape. Streams and rivers may themselves be important sinks for bioavailable nitrogen owing to their hydrological connections with terrestrial systems, high rates of biological activity, and streambed sediment environments that favour microbial denitrification. Here we present data from nitrogen stable isotope tracer experiments across 72 streams and 8 regions representing several biomes. We show that total biotic uptake and denitrification of nitrate increase with stream nitrate concentration, but that the efficiency of biotic uptake and denitrification declines as concentration increases, reducing the proportion of in-stream nitrate that is removed from transport. Our data suggest that the total uptake of nitrate is related to ecosystem photosynthesis and that denitrification is related to ecosystem respiration. In addition, we use a stream network model to demonstrate that excess nitrate in streams elicits a disproportionate increase in the fraction of nitrate that is exported to receiving waters and reduces the relative role of small versus large streams as nitrate sinks.

Nitrous oxide emission from denitrification in stream and river networks

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change and stratospheric ozone destruction. Anthropogenic nitrogen (N) loading to river networks is a potentially important source of N2O via microbial denitrification that converts N to N2O and dinitrogen (N2). The fraction of denitrified N that escapes as N2O rather than N2 (i.e., the N2O yield) is an important determinant of how much N2O is produced by river networks, but little is known about the N2O yield in flowing waters. Here, we present the results of whole-stream 15N-tracer additions conducted in 72 headwater streams draining multiple land-use types across the United States. We found that stream denitrification produces N2O at rates that increase with stream water nitrate (NO3−) concentrations, but that <1% of denitrified N is converted to N2O. Unlike some previous studies, we found no relationship between the N2O yield and stream water NO3−. We suggest that increased stream NO3− loading stimulates denitrification and concomitant N2O production, but does not increase the N2O yield. In our study, most streams were sources of N2O to the atmosphere and the highest emission rates were observed in streams draining urban basins. Using a global river network model, we estimate that microbial N transformations (e.g., denitrification and nitrification) convert at least 0.68 Tg·y−1 of anthropogenic N inputs to N2O in river networks, equivalent to 10% of the global anthropogenic N2O emission rate. This estimate of stream and river N2O emissions is three times greater than estimated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Scaling the gas transfer velocity and hydraulic geometry in streams and small rivers

Scaling is an integral component of ecology and earth science. To date, the ability to determine the importance of air – water gas exchange across large spatial scales is hampered partly by our ability to scale the gas transfer velocity and stream hydraulics. Here we report on a metadata analysis of 563 direct gas tracer release experiments that examines scaling laws for the gas transfer velocity. We found that the gas transfer velocity scales with the product of stream slope and velocity, which is in alignment with theory on stream energy dissipation. In addition to providing equations that predict the gas transfer velocity based on stream hydraulics, we used our hydraulic data set to report a new set of hydraulic exponents and coefficients that allow the prediction of stream width, depth, and velocity based on discharge. Finally, we report a new table of gas Schmidt number dependencies to allow researchers to estimate a gas transfer velocity using our equation for many gasses of interest.

Thinking outside the channel : modeling nitrogen cycling in networked river ecosystems

Agricultural and urban development alters nitrogen and other biogeochemical cycles in rivers worldwide. Because such biogeochemical processes cannot be measured empirically across whole river networks, simulation models are critical tools for understanding river-network biogeochemistry. However, limitations inherent in current models restrict our ability to simulate biogeochemical dynamics among diverse river networks. We illustrate these limitations using a river-network model to scale up in situ measures of nitrogen cycling in eight catchments spanning various geophysical and land-use conditions. Our model results provide evidence that catchment characteristics typically excluded from models may control river-network biogeochemistry. Based on our findings, we identify important components of a revised strategy for simulating biogeochemical dynamics in river networks, including approaches to modeling terrestrial-aquatic linkages, hydrologic exchanges between the channel, floodplain/riparian complex, and subsurface waters, and interactions between coupled biogeochemical cycles.

Salinization of urbanizing New Hampshire streams and groundwater: effects of road salt and hydrologic variability

Abstract Since the 1940s, use of road salt as a deicing agent has increased substantially in regions of the US with cold winters. Despite its ubiquitous application and known negative consequences for aquatic and human health, little research has documented the effects of road salt on the water quality of either streams or groundwater in regions, such as New Hampshire (NH), with harsh northern climates. We measured stream Na+ and Cl− concentrations in 44 basins spanning a gradient of urbanization in southeastern and central NH. Among all sampled basins, stream Na+ and Cl− concentrations were highly correlated with basin % road pavement (r2  =  0.75 for Na+, and 0.78 for Cl−). In southeastern NH, concentrations also were correlated strongly with % impervious surface (r2  =  0.86 for Na+, and 0.92 for Cl−). Groundwater salt concentrations in 143 private wells were significantly correlated with % impervious surface within a 500-m radius of each well, but the proportion of explained variance was small (r2  =  0.07 for Na+, and 0.10 for Cl−). Concentrations of salt in streams and groundwater were surprisingly high. Mean concentrations of Na+ ranged from <1 to 298 mg/L and of Cl− ranged from <1 to 573 mg/L. Mean Cl− concentration in 1 small stream exceeded the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) chronic toxicity standard of 230 mg/L, and 9% of groundwater samples exceeded the secondary EPA maximum contamination levels for drinking water (250 mg/L of either Na+ or Cl−). In our long-term study basin, the Lamprey River, specific conductance increased over the period from 1978 to 2008, a result that indicated a corresponding increase in Na+ and Cl− concentrations. Both Na+ and Cl− concentrations in the Lamprey River were negatively correlated with flow, but the slope of the relationship decreased after a significant flood in 2006. Our data suggest that road-salting practices are contributing to the salinization of stream water and groundwater in NH, and that hydrologic variability, which is predicted to increase with climate change, could strongly affect the degree of salinization observed in surface waters.

Denitrification and total nitrate uptake in streams of a tropical landscape.

Rapid increases in nitrogen (N) loading are occurring in many tropical watersheds, but the fate of N in tropical streams is not well documented. Rates of nitrate uptake and denitrification were measured in nine tropical low-order streams with contrasting land use as part of the Lotic Intersite Nitrogen eXperiment II (LINX II) in Puerto Rico using short term (24-hour) additions of K(15)NO3 and NaBr. Background nitrate concentrations ranged from 105 to 997 microg N/L, and stream nitrate uptake lengths were long, varying from 315 to 8480 m (median of 1200 m). Other indices of nitrate uptake (mass transfer coefficient, V(f) [cm/s], and whole-stream nitrate uptake rate, U [microg N m(-2) s(-1)]) were low in comparison to other regions and were related to chemical, biological, and physical parameters. Denitrification rates were highly variable (0-133 microg N m(-2) min(-1); median = 15 microg N m(-2) min(-1)), were dominated by the end product N2 (rather than N2O), and were best predicted by whole-stream respiration rates and stream NO3 concentration. Denitrification accounted for 1-97% of nitrate uptake with five of nine streams having 35% or more of nitrate uptake via denitrification, showing that denitrification is a substantial sink for nitrate in tropical streams. Whole-stream nitrate uptake and denitrification in our study streams closely followed first-order uptake kinetics, indicating that NO3 uptake is limited by delivery of substrate (NO3) to the organisms involved in uptake or denitrification. In the context of whole-catchment nitrogen budgets, our finding that in-stream denitrification results in lower proportional production of N2O than terrestrial denitrification suggests that small streams can be viewed as the preferred site of denitrification in a watershed in order to minimize greenhouse gas N2O emissions. Conservation of small streams is thus critical in tropical ecosystem management.

Leaf-litter leachate is distinct in optical properties and bioavailability to stream heterotrophs

Dissolved organic C (DOC) leached from leaf litter contributes to the C pool of stream ecosystems and affects C cycling in streams. We studied how differences in leaf-litter chemistry affect the optical properties and decomposition of DOC. We used 2 species of cottonwoods (Populus) and their naturally occurring hybrids that differ in leaf-litter phytochemistry and decomposition rate. We measured DOC and nutrient concentration in leaf leachates and determined the effect of DOC quality on heterotrophic respiration in 24-h incubations with stream sediments. Differences in DOC composition and quality were characterized with fluorescence spectroscopy. Rapidly decomposing leaves with lower tannin and lignin concentrations leached ∼40 to 50% more DOC and total dissolved N than did slowly decomposing leaves. Rates of heterotrophic respiration were 25 to 50% higher on leachate from rapidly decomposing leaf types. Rates of heterotrophic respiration were related to metrics of aromaticity. Specifically, rates of respiration were correlated negatively with the Fluorescence Index and positively with Specific Ultraviolet Absorbance (SUVA254) and T280 tryptophan-like fluorescence peak. These results reveal that leaf-litter DOC is distinctly different from ambient streamwater DOC. The relationships between optical characteristics of leaf leachate and bioavailability are opposite those found in streamwater DOC. Differences in phytochemistry among leaf types can influence stream ecosystems with respect to DOC quantity, composition, and rates of stream respiration. These patterns suggest that the relationship between the chemical structure of DOC and its biogeochemistry is more complex than previously recognized. These unique properties of leaf-litter DOC will be important when assessing the effects of terrestrial C on aquatic ecosystems, especially during leaf fall.

Incorporating urban infrastructure into biogeochemical assessment of urban tropical streams in Puerto Rico

The influence of built urban infrastructure on stream chemistry was quantified throughout the drainage network of the tropical Río Piedras watershed, San Juan metropolitan area, Puerto Rico. Urbanization and failing domestic wastewater infrastructure appeared to drive changes in surface water chemistry throughout the watershed. Mean baseflow concentrations of chloride (Cl), ammonium (NH4), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), and phosphate (PO4) all increased with urban infrastructure, while nitrate (NO3) and dissolved oxygen (DO) decreased. These patterns in stream chemistry suggest that sewage effluent from failing or illegally connected sewer pipes has a major impact on surface water quality. Concentrations of Cl, DO, and NH4 in stream water were most strongly related to sewer pipe volume, demonstrating the tight connection between urban infrastructure and stream chemistry. The loading and transformation of NO3 and NH4 were modeled along the river network and NH4 loading rates from the landscape were strongly related to urban infrastructure, whereas NO3 loading rates showed only weak relationships, highlighting the importance for incorporating NH4 dynamics into river network models in urban environments. Water quality appears to be severely impacted by sewage in this tropical basin, despite large investments in built infrastructure. The high temperatures in the Río Piedras exacerbate water quality problems by reducing saturation DO levels in streams, and intense rainstorms tax the ability of built infrastructure to adequately manage overland flows. These problems are likely typical of much of the urbanized humid tropics.

Effects of sewage effluents on water quality in tropical streams.

Increased urbanization in many tropical regions has led to an increase in centralized treatment of sewage effluents. Research regarding the effects of these wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) on the ecology of tropical streams is sparse, so we examined the effects of WWTPs on stream water quality on the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico. Nutrient concentrations, discharge, dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD), and specific UV absorbance (SUVA) at 254 nm were measured upstream from the WWTP effluent, at the WWTP effluent, and below the WWTP effluent. All parameters measured (except DO) were significantly affected by discharge of WWTP effluent to the stream. The values of SUVA at 254 nm were typically lower (<2.5 m mg L) in WWTP effluents than those measured upstream of the WWTP, suggesting that WWTP effluents are contributing labile carbon fractions to receiving streams, thus changing the chemical composition of dissolved organic carbon in downstream reaches. Effluents from WWTP contributed on average 24% to the stream flow at our tropical streams. More than 40% of the nutrient loads in receiving streams came from WWTP effluents, with the effects on NO-N and PO-P loads being the greatest. The effect of WWTPs on nutrient loads was significantly larger than the effect of flow due to the elevated nutrient concentrations in treated effluents. Our results demonstrate that inputs from WWTPs to streams contribute substantially to changes in water quality, potentially affecting downstream ecosystems. Our findings highlight the need to establish nutrient criteria for tropical streams to minimize degradation of downstream water quality of the receiving streams.

Deconstructing the Effects of Flow on DOC, Nitrate, and Major Ion Interactions Using a High‐Frequency Aquatic Sensor Network

Streams provide a physical linkage between land and downstream river networks, delivering solutes derived from multiple catchment sources. We analyzed high-frequency time series of stream solutes to characterize the timing and magnitude of major ion, nutrient and organic matter transport over event, seasonal, and annual timescales as well as to assess whether nitrate (NO3-) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) transport are coupled in catchments, which would be expected if they are subject to similar biogeochemical controls throughout the watershed. Our dataset includes in situ observations of NO3-, fluorescent dissolved organic matter (DOC proxy), and specific conductance spanning 2 – 4 years in 10 streams and rivers across New Hampshire, including observations of nearly 700 individual hydrologic events. We found a positive response of NO3- and DOC to flow in forested streams, but watershed development led to a negative relationship between NO3- and discharge, and thus a de-coupling of the overall NO3- and DOC responses to flow. On event and seasonal timescales, NO3- and DOC consistently displayed different behavior. For example, in several streams FDOM yield was greatest during summer storms while NO3- yield was greatest during winter storms. Most streams had generalizable storm NO3- and DOC responses, but differences in the timing of NO3- and DOC transport suggest different catchment sources. Further, certain events, including rain-on-snow and summer storms following dry antecedent conditions, yielded disproportionate NO3- responses. High-frequency data allow for increased understanding of the processes controlling solute variability and will help elucidate their responses to changing climatic regimes.