John R. Haslett

Quantifying the Contribution of Organisms to the Provision of Ecosystem Services

Research on ecosystem services has grown rapidly over the last decade. Two conceptual frameworks have been published to guide ecological assessments of organisms that deliver services—the concepts of service-providing units (SPUs) and ecosystem service providers (ESPs). Here, we unite these frameworks and present an SPU-ESP continuum that offers a coherent conceptual approach for synthesizing the latest developments in ecosystem service research, and can direct future studies at all levels of organization. In particular, we show how the service-provider concept can be applied at the population, functional group, and community levels. We strongly emphasize the need to identify and quantify the organisms and their characteristics (e.g., functional traits) that provide services, and to assess service provision relative to the demands of human beneficiaries. We use key examples from the literature to illustrate the new approach and to highlight gaps in knowledge, particularly in relation to the impact of species interactions and ecosystem dynamics on service provision.

Identifying and prioritising services in European terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems

Ecosystems are multifunctional and provide humanity with a broad array of vital services. Effective management of services requires an improved evidence base, identifying the role of ecosystems in delivering multiple services, which can assist policy-makers in maintaining them. Here, information from the literature and scientific experts was used to systematically document the importance of services and identify trends in their use and status over time for the main terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems in Europe. The results from this review show that intensively managed ecosystems contribute mostly to vital provisioning services (e.g. agro-ecosystems provide food via crops and livestock, and forests provide wood), while semi-natural ecosystems (e.g. grasslands and mountains) are key contributors of genetic resources and cultural services (e.g. aesthetic values and sense of place). The most recent European trends in human use of services show increases in demand for crops from agro-ecosystems, timber from forests, water flow regulation from rivers, wetlands and mountains, and recreation and ecotourism in most ecosystems, but decreases in livestock production, freshwater capture fisheries, wild foods and virtually all services associated with ecosystems which have considerably decreased in area (e.g. semi-natural grasslands). The condition of the majority of services show either a degraded or mixed status across Europe with the exception of recent enhancements in timber production in forests and mountains, freshwater provision, water/erosion/natural hazard regulation and recreation/ecotourism in mountains, and climate regulation in forests. Key gaps in knowledge were evident for certain services across all ecosystems, including the provision of biochemicals and natural medicines, genetic resources and the regulating services of seed dispersal, pest/disease regulation and invasion resistance.

Ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation: concepts and a glossary.

The RUBICODE project draws on expertise from a range of disciplines to develop and integrate frameworks for assessing the impacts of environmental change on ecosystem service provision, and for rationalising biodiversity conservation in that light. With such diverse expertise and concepts involved, interested parties will not be familiar with all the key terminology. This paper defines the terms as used within the project and, where useful, discusses some reasoning behind the definitions. Terms are grouped by concept rather than being listed alphabetically.

Changing conservation strategies in Europe: a framework integrating ecosystem services and dynamics

Protecting species and their habitats through the designation and management of protected areas is central to present biodiversity conservation efforts in Europe. Recent awareness of the importance of ecosystem dynamics in changing environments and of human needs for the sustainable provision of ecosystem services expose potential weaknesses in current European conservation management strategies and policy. Here we examine these issues in the light of information gained from reviews, workshops, interviews and discussions undertaken within the RUBICODE project. We present a new conceptual framework that joins conventional biodiversity conservation with new requirements. The framework links cultural and aesthetic values applied in a static environment to the demands of dynamic ecosystems and societal needs within social–ecological systems in a changing Europe. We employ this framework to propose innovative ways in which ecosystem service provision may be used to add value to traditional conservation approaches by supporting and complementing present European biodiversity conservation strategy and policy while remaining within the guidelines of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Research needs for incorporating the ecosystem service approach into EU biodiversity conservation policy

Using a range of different methods including extensive reviews, workshops and an electronic conference, 70 key research recommendations and 12 priority research needs to integrate the ecosystem services approach into biodiversity conservation policy and funding were identified by a cross-disciplinary group of over 100 scientists and 50 stakeholders, including research funders and policy-makers. These recommendations focus on the ecological underpinning of ecosystem services, drivers that affect ecosystems and their services, biological traits and ecosystem services, the valuation of ecosystem services, spatial and temporal scales in ecosystem service assessment, indicators of ecosystem services, and habitat management, conservation policy and ecosystem services. The recommendations in this paper help steer the research agenda on ecosystem services into policy-relevant areas, agreed upon by funders, researchers and policy-makers. This research agenda will only succeed with increased collaboration between researchers across disciplines, thereby providing a challenge to the research community and research funders to work in new, interdisciplinary ways.

MyoD and Myogenin expression during myogenic phases in brown trout: A precocious onset of mosaic hyperplasia is a prerequisite for fast somatic growth

Muscle cell recruitment (hyperplasia) during myogenesis in the vertebrate embryo is known to occur in three consecutive phases. In teleost fish (including zebrafish), however, information on myogenic precursor cell activation is largely fragmentary, and comprehensive characterization of the myogenic phases has only been fully undertaken in a single slow‐growing cyprinid species by examination of MEF2D expression. Here, we use molecular techniques to provide a comprehensive characterization of MyoD and Myogenin expression during myogenic cell activation in embryos and larvae of brown trout, a fast‐growing salmonid with exceptionally large embryos. Results confirm the three‐phase pattern, but also demonstrate that the second and third phases begin simultaneously and progress vigorously, which is different from the previously described consecutive activation of these phases. Furthermore, we suggest that Pax7 is expressed in myogenic progenitor cells that account for second‐ and third‐phase myogenesis. These findings are discussed in relation to teleost myotome development and to teleost growth strategies. Developmental Dynamics 236:1106–1114, 2007.

Phases of myogenic cell activation and possible role of dermomyotome cells in teleost muscle formation

Present knowledge indicates that fibre recruitment (hyperplasia) in developing teleost fish occurs in three distinct phases. However, the origin and relationship of the myogenic precursors activated during the different phases remains unclear. Here, we address this issue using molecular techniques on embryos and larvae of pearlfish, a large cyprinid species. Results provide comprehensive molecular characterisation of cell recruitment over the three phases of myogenesis, identifying muscle types as they arise. Specifically, we show that the myogenic cells arising during 2nd phase myogenesis are clearly different from the myogenic cells arising during the 3rd phase and that the dermomyotome is a major source of myogenic cells driving 2nd phase hyperplasia. These findings are discussed in relation to their implications for the generality of vertebrate developmental patterns. Developmental Dynamics 235:3132–3143, 2006.

Patterns of superficial fibre formation in the European pearlfish (Rutilus frisii meidingeri) provide a general template for slow muscle development in teleost fish

Abstract The debate about the pattern of muscle formation in teleost fish has recently been heightened in the literature. Here we examine superficial muscle development in the pearlfish, a cyprinid endemic to a small area of Central Europe, and uninfluenced by economic interest and breeding. Using light and electron microscopy, histochemistry and immunohistochemistry techniques, we report that: (1) Superficial fibre precursors originate close to the notochord, are part of the same cell population as the so-called muscle pioneer cells, and are transferred laterally to end up at the surface of the myotome. (2) Superficial fibre maturation is exceptionally rapid. Structural and enzymatic functionality is attained at a time when prospective deep fibres have not passed beyond the early myotube state. This strong contrast weakens as the embryo develops. (3) Apart from the muscle pioneers, the superficial fibres appear to be capable of functioning before they receive any direct innervation, implying that signals are transferred to these fibres via cell-to-cell junctions. We suggest that the capability of rapid superficial fibre maturation is a rather general feature among teleosts and may aid pre-hatch survival under a variable environment. Our results indicate that muscle formation in teleost fish may follow a common basic pattern that is open to considerable ontogenetic and phylogenetic modification in response to habitat conditions.

Responses of assemblages of Orthoptera to management and use of ski slopes on upper sub-alpine meadows in the Austrian alps

The Orthoptera assemblages occurring on sub-alpine ski slopes were compared with those found on neighbouring unskied meadows by making frequent transect counts at two pairs of sites in the Gastein valley in the Austrian Central Alps. On one of the ski slopes no Orthoptera were present, although two species were abundant on the control meadow a few meters away. On the second ski slope, the Orthoptera assemblage exhibited reduced species richness, lower densities of individuals and a generally accelerated rate of nymphal development compared to the control meadow populations. These results may be explained in terms of the changed habitat conditions on the ski slopes and the known biologies of the species concerned. The implications of the findings for winter tourism management in high altitude ecosystems are briefly discussed.

Tonic fibres in axial muscle of cyprinid fish larvae: their definition, possible origins and functional importance

Teleost fish are known to develop small populations of muscle fibres that are assumed to be tonic in nature although their contractile properties and many other characteristics remain unknown. Here we attempt to resolve some of the ambiguity and confusions surrounding the definition and functional role of tonic fibres in teleosts and provide new information on their ontogeny. We investigate the differentiation of tonic muscle fibres in three species of cyprinid fish using electron microscopy, histochemistry, immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. The fine structure of the fibres defined as tonic in the larvae used in this study complies with patterns known from studies in teleost adults. This allows formal definition of tonic fibres in cyprinid larvae. The tonic fibres may be recognized by a variety of features: (1) by their characteristic position along the medial confines of the red muscle insertion at the horizontal septum, (2) their fine structure, including solid clusters of irregularly cleaved myofibrils, thick and wavy Z-lines, and T-tubules at the A-band/I-band transitions, (3) their histochemical features, specifically weak but obvious staining for mATPase after alkaline preincubation, and lack of SDH activity in the more advanced larval stages, (4) their unique immunological properties, being the only fibre type in the myotome that reacts with a serum against chicken tonic myosin (anti-T2). Expression of tonic characters usually begins within a few fibres in the dorsal domain of the superficial red muscle insertion at the horizontal septum and hence involves a high degree of dorso-ventral polarity. The present evidence indicates that tonic fibres arise from separate myogenic stem cells rather than by transdifferentiation from existing red fibres. First appearance of tonic fibres during ontogeny correlates closely with the onset of free swimming and exogeneous feeding. We use this fact to argue that tonic fibres are probably a prerequisite for efficient locomotory control during prey capture, shoaling and predator avoidance.