Joseph W. Roggenbuck

Beyond the commodity metaphor: Examining emotional and symbolic attachment to place

Abstract In contrast to the dominant multiattribute commodity view of outdoor recreation settings, wilderness users are described as having emotional and symbolic ties to the setting that are manifested as attachment to the site and the wilderness concept. Data from four wilderness areas show stronger place and wilderness attachment to be associated with previous visits, rural residence, a setting (as opposed to activity or group) focus, visiting alone and on weekdays, hunting in the area, and sensitivity to site impacts and horse encounters. Place attachment is also associated with a lack of nonwilderness substitutes and lower income and education. Wilderness attachment is associated with membership in wilderness and conservation organizations, visits to more wilderness areas, a preference for longer visits, participation in nature study, and sensitivity to sight and sound intrusions and hiker encounters. The importance of understanding emotional and symbolic values of natural resources is discussed in r...

Defining acceptable conditions in wilderness

The limits of acceptable change (LAC) planning framework recognizes that forest managers must decide what indicators of wilderness conditions best represent resource naturalness and high-quality visitor experiences and how much change from the pristine is acceptable for each indicator. Visitor opinions on the aspects of the wilderness that have great impact on their experience can provide valuable input to selection of indicators. Cohutta, Georgia; Caney Creek, Arkansas; Upland Island, Texas; and Rattlesnake, Montana, wilderness visitors have high shared agreement that littering and damage to trees in campsites, noise, and seeing wildlife are very important influences on wilderness experiences. Camping within sight or sound of other people influences experience quality more than do encounters on the trails. Visitors’ standards of acceptable conditions within wilderness vary considerably, suggesting a potential need to manage different zones within wilderness for different clientele groups and experiences. Standards across wildernesses, however, are remarkably similar.

The dynamic, emergent, and multi-phasic nature of on-site wilderness experiences.

Feelings and cognitions of leisure may not only be dynamic during the course of the total outdoor recreation engagement, they may be dynamic, emergent, and multi-phasic during the on-site phase. Experience Sampling Method data were collected from a sample of wilderness visitors multiple times during a visit to the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge. Four modes of environmental experience (focus on self, others, task, and environment) and four aspects of wilderness experience (a combined oneness/primitiveness/humility variable, timelessness, solitude, and care) were measured. Univariate and multivariate repeated measures analyses demonstrated significant change from the entry, through immersion, to the exit phases of the wilderness experience. This experiential change included greater focus on the environment and on self/in-trospection at the exit compared to the entry phase, and less focus on others/social acceptance during the immersion phase. Scores on humility/primitiveness/oneness were higher at both the immersion and exit phases than during entry, and care for the wilderness was higher during the exit phase than during entry. Implications of findings for understanding the complex nature of leisure experiences are provided.

The influence of experience expectations on crowding perceptions and social‐psychological carrying capacities

Carrying capacities for recreation have been difficult to determine because of the tendency to consider perception of crowding as a generalized human value. Rather, such perceptions are a function of the differing expectations people may have for given recreational experiences. A study of Whitewater river recreationists in Dinosaur National Monument showed that persons who score more highly in certain experience expectations are more sensitive to crowding, that different expectations show varying sensitivities to crowding and that various user groups differ significantly in the rated importance of these expectations. A wilderness attitude scale was also employed. Persons differing in their wilderness scores also differed significantly in the rated importance of the various experience expectations, as well as in their sensitivity to crowding. Implications for the management of recreational resources are discussed.

Nature/person transactions during an outdoor adventure experience: a multi-phasic analysis.

Few studies have addressed the changing nature of adventure recreation experience as it unfolds during the activity. This study explores a black-water rafting trip through a cave by examining perso...

The influence of past experience on wilderness choice

A study of Southern Appalachian backcountry hikers tested the hypothesis that recreationists with high experience levels would have greater differentiation of site attribute values when making recreation choices than would individuals with low experience. Contrary to cognitive development theory, a simulated laboratory choice study found that more experienced subjects employed fewer and broader attribute value categories than did their less experienced counterparts. This surprising finding might be explained by the nature of the judgment task. Cognitive development theory suggests that greater experience leads to greater perceptual distinction along a range of attribute values, but social judgment theory suggests fewer attitudinal or preference distinctions along the range of attribute values with increased involvement with the issue or object. Leisure planners, managers, and programmers must decide what type of judgment they are asking recreationists to make when they attempt to influence choice through provision of information.

The learning benefits of leisure.

Recreation planners, managers, and researchers have given little attention to the learning benefits of leisure. Learning, education, and protecting the environment are high priority concerns for th...

Factors affecting piping plover productivity on Assateague Island

We studied piping plovers (Charadrius melodus) on Assateague Island (Md., Va.) in 1986-87 to estimate population size and to identify factors affecting productivity. Fledging rates (0.19-1.11 chicks/pair) appeared to be lower than the level necessary to maintain a stable population. Fifty-four percent of the nests were unsuccessful. Predators accounted for most (91%) of the known causes of nest losses. Only 1 nest (2.2% of losses with known cause) was lost due to direct human destruction, and we found no evidence that suggested recreational disturbance was a factor affecting productivity. Mean chick fledging success was 69% for broods foraging at bay flats or tidal pools and 19% for broods foraging on ocean beach (P < 0.05). J. WILDL. MANAGE. 55(3):525-531 Piping plovers were listed as threatened throughout their Atlantic coastal breeding range (Newf. to S.C.) in 1986 due to concern about population declines. Declines have been attributed to loss of breeding habitat and poor productivity (U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. [USFWS] 1988). Factors thought to be contributing to habitat loss include beach development, dune reclamation and beach stabilization, and recreational use (Wilcox 1959, Cairns and McLaren 1980). Low productivity has been attributed to recreational disturbance and high nest predation (Cairns and McLaren 1980, Cairns 1982, Flemming et al. 1988, MacIvor et al. 1990). Nest predation has been linked to nesting habitat characteristics including nesting substrate, amount of vegetative cover, and beach width (Burger 1987, Gaines and Ryan 1988). We studied piping plovers on Assateague Island in Virginia and Maryland. Our objectives were to (1) estimate population size, (2) estimate nest success, (3) examine the influence of habitat characteristics on nest predation, (4) estimate chick survival, and (5) identify factors influencing chick survival. We thank the National Park Service, the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, and the Virginia Society of Ornithology for funding. Thanks also go to P. A. Buckley, J. F. Karish, R. B. Rodgers, and K. A. Terwilliger for support. D. F. Stauffer and J. D. Wellman provided criticism.

Response Format Effects in Questions about Norms: Implications for the Reliability and Validity of the Normative Approach

Several studies have demonstrated that altering the format (question wording or presentation format) can alter responses obtained from normative questions. This study extends that research with two experiments. In a study of McKenzie River boaters in Oregon ( n = 225), respondents received either a semiopen (fill in the blank) or closed (scale with anchored points) format of questions about acceptable waiting time at boat launches, percent of time spent in sight of other boaters, and number of groups met per day. In the second study, at Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, 774 respondents received either the semiopen format or one of two closed formats (anchored with 30 or 60), asking for the acceptable number of motorboats and canoes. In both cases, norm prevalence was significantly higher in the closed format (46 to 78%) than in the semiopen format (27 to 60%), and the average increase from one format to the other was 23%. This suggests either that respondents are more likely to guess at a number when given a closed response frame or that the closed format provides important context that elicits valid responses. Examination of the mean values obtained under the different response formats suggest that both processes may be operating, but the latter is more likely. It appears that closed formats, like photographs, offer a cognitively easier and more meaningful task.

The ebb and flow of brief leisure experiences

Four leisure conditions were compared: (a) walking along a rural road, with frequent vista views of a Tuscan landscape; (b) walking in a completely built setting, within a city center; (c) sitting indoors with a panoramic window view of a rural setting; and (d) sitting in a small but comfortable room with no view. Assessed at the beginning, twice during, and at the conclusion of the leisure activity were eight dimensions of experience: anxiety, dullness, excitement, calmness, love, power of concentration, freedom, and self‐esteem. On balance, the ebbs and flows observed here suggest that on‐site leisure experiences are dynamic (i.e., change while on‐site), multiple dimensional, and complex (the dimensions’ ebbs and flows do not parallel one another). However, the findings are not clear as to whether it is the type of leisure (active or passive), the setting of leisure (rural or urban), or simply being at leisure that most determines the ebb and flow of a recreation experience. If anything, the results sug...