Josie P. Briggs

Mediation of tubuloglomerular feedback by adenosine: Evidence from mice lacking adenosine 1 receptors

Adenosine is a determinant of metabolic control of organ function increasing oxygen supply through the A2 class of adenosine receptors and reducing oxygen demand through A1 adenosine receptors (A1AR). In the kidney, activation of A1AR in afferent glomerular arterioles has been suggested to contribute to tubuloglomerular feedback (TGF), the vasoconstriction elicited by elevations in [NaCl] in the macula densa region of the nephron. To further elucidate the role of A1AR in TGF, we have generated mice in which the entire A1AR coding sequence was deleted by homologous recombination. Homozygous A1AR mutants that do not express A1AR mRNA transcripts and do not respond to A1AR agonists are viable and without gross anatomical abnormalities. Plasma and urinary electrolytes were not different between genotypes. Likewise, arterial blood pressure, heart rates, and glomerular filtration rates were indistinguishable between A1AR+/+, A1AR+/−, and A1AR−/− mice. TGF responses to an increase in loop of Henle flow rate from 0 to 30 nl/min, whether determined as change of stop flow pressure or early proximal flow rate, were completely abolished in A1AR−/− mice (stop flow pressure response, −6.8 ± 0.55 mmHg and −0.4 ± 0.2 in A1AR+/+ and A1AR−/− mice; early proximal flow rate response, −3.4 ± 0.4 nl/min and +0.02 ± 0.3 nl/min in A1AR+/+ and A1AR−/− mice). Absence of TGF responses in A1AR-deficient mice suggests that adenosine is a required constituent of the juxtaglomerular signaling pathway. A1AR null mutant mice are a promising tool to study the functional role of A1AR in different target tissues.

Adenosine Induces Vasoconstriction through Gi-Dependent Activation of Phospholipase C in Isolated Perfused Afferent Arterioles of Mice

Adenosine induces vasoconstriction of renal afferent arterioles through activation of A1 adenosine receptors (A1AR). A1AR are directly coupled to Gi/Go, resulting in inhibition of adenylate cyclase, but the contribution of this signaling pathway to smooth muscle cell activation is unclear. In perfused afferent arterioles from mouse kidney, adenosine and the A1 agonist N(6)-cyclohexyladenosine, when added to the bath, caused constriction in the concentration range of 10(-9) to 10(-6) M (mean diameter: control, 8.8 +/- 0.3 micro m; adenosine at 10(-6) M, 2.8 +/- 0.5 micro m). Adenosine-induced vasoconstriction was stable for up to 30 min and was most pronounced in the most distal part of the afferent arterioles. Adenosine did not cause vasoconstriction in arterioles from A1AR-/- mice. Pretreatment with pertussis toxin (PTX) (400 ng/ml) for 2 h blocked the vasoconstricting action of adenosine or N(6)-cyclohexyladenosine. PTX pretreatment did not affect the constriction response to KCl, whereas the angiotensin II dose-response relationship was shifted rightward. Reverse transcription-PCR revealed expression of Gi but not Go in kidney cortex and preglomerular vessels. The phospholipase C inhibitor U73122 (4 micro M) blocked the constriction responses to both adenosine and angiotensin II. In contrast, the adenylate cyclase inhibitor SQ22536 (10 micro M) and the protein kinase A antagonist KT5720 (0.1 and 1 micro M) did not induce significant vasoconstriction of afferent arterioles. It is concluded that the constriction response to adenosine in afferent arterioles is mediated by A1AR coupled to a PTX-sensitive Gi protein and subsequent activation of phospholipase C, presumably through betagamma subunits released from Galphai.

Effects of Furosemide and Verapamil on the NaCl Dependency of Macula Densa–Mediated Renin Secretion

The present studies in perfused specimens of the juxtaglomerular apparatus microdissected from rabbit kidneys were performed to quantitatively evaluate the relation between macula densa NaCl concentration and renin secretion and to study the effect of furosemide and verapamil on NaCl dependency of renin release. Renin secretion was found to decrease exponentially when macula densa NaCl concentration was increased from 26/7 mmol/L (Na/Cl) to 46/27, 66/47, and 86/67 mmol/L. Increasing Na/Cl concentrations from 86/67 to 106/87 mmol/L had no further effect on renin secretion. [Cl]1/2, the chloride concentration producing the half-maximal effect, was 30 mmol/L. Addition of 50 mumol/L furosemide to the luminal fluid caused renin secretion to become essentially independent of macula densa NaCl concentration. This effect was due to both an increase of renin secretion at high NaCl concentrations and a decrease of renin release at low NaCl concentrations. Verapamil added to the superfusate at a concentration of 1 mumol/L also abolished NaCl dependency of renin secretion; most of this effect was due to an increase of renin release at high luminal NaCl. These results suggest that Na-2Cl-K cotransport and calcium flux through voltage-gated channels are two mechanisms required for the expression of NaCl-dependent renin release. Identification of the cellular localizations of these two critical membrane proteins in the renin control pathway requires further study.

Direct vasoconstriction as a possible cause for amphotericin B-induced nephrotoxicity in rats.

In anesthetized rats we tested the hypothesis that amphotericin B (AmB) reduces glomerular filtration rate (GFR) by activating the tubuloglomerular feedback (TGF) mechanism. Infusion of 1 mg/kg AmB over 50 min was followed by a reduction in kidney GFR (from 0.47 +/- 0.03 to 0.39 +/- 0.02 ml/min per 100 g body wt during the second hour after infusion; P less than 0.05) and by an increase in urine flow and urinary chloride excretion. Single-nephron GFR (SNGFR) measured in proximal (TGF interrupted) or distal tubules (TGF intact) decreased to a similar degree from 33.4 +/- 1.8 and 30.6 +/- 1.2 nl/min in the control period to 19.7 +/- 1.9 and 21.2 +/- 1.6 nl/min during the second hour after AmB infusion (P less than 0.05). Distal chloride concentrations and TGF responses to changes in loop of Henle flow rate were not significantly altered by AmB. AmB at 10(-5) M reduced the diameter of isolated perfused afferent arterioles from rabbit kidneys. In isometrically contracting rings of rabbit aorta and renal artery in vitro AmB produced endothelium-independent constriction, with half-maximal contraction (EC50) being achieved by 1.8 x 10(-6) and 2.6 x 10(-6) M in intact vessels and 1.3 x 10(-6) and 1.7 x 10(-6) M in endothelium-denuded vessels respectively. Tension development did not occur in Ca-free media or in the presence of Ca channel blockers. Pretreatment with ouabain or Bay K 8644 potentiated the effect of AmB. The vasoconstrictive effect of AmB was counteracted by aminophylline and atrial natriuretic peptide. We conclude that the AmB-induced reduction in GFR is not caused by TGF activation and that AmB has a direct vasoconstrictor effect that is probably initiated by depolarization-induced opening of Ca channels. This effect may be an important component of the nephrotoxic actions of AmB.

Intracellular ATP can regulate afferent arteriolar tone via ATP-sensitive K+ channels in the rabbit.

Studies were performed to assess whether ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) channels on rabbit preglomerular vessels can influence afferent arteriolar (AA) tone. K+ channels with a slope conductance of 258 +/- 13 (n = 7) pS and pronounced voltage dependence were demonstrated in excised patches from vascular smooth muscle cells of microdissected preglomerular segments. Channel activity was markedly reduced by 1 mM ATP and in a dose-dependent fashion by glibenclamide (10(-9) M to 10(-6) M), a specific antagonist of KATP channels. 10(-5) M diazoxide, a K+ channel opener, activated these channels in the presence of ATP, and this effect was also blocked by glibenclamide. To determine the role of these KATP channels in the control of vascular tone, diazoxide was tested on isolated perfused AA. After preconstriction from a control diameter of 13.1 +/- 1.1 to 3.5 +/- 2.1 microns with phenylephrine (PE), addition of 10(-5) M diazoxide dilated vessels to 11.2 +/- 0.7 microns, which was not different from control. Further addition of 10(-5) M glibenclamide reconstricted the vessels to 5.8 +/- 1.5 microns (n = 5; P less than 0.03). In support of its specificity for KATP channels, glibenclamide did not reverse verapamil induced dilation in a separate series of experiments. To determine whether intracellular ATP levels can effect AA tone, studies were conducted to test the effect of the glycolytic inhibitor 2-deoxy-D-glucose. After preconstriction from 13.4 +/- 3.2 to 7.7 +/- 1.3 microns with PE, bath glucose was replaced with 6 mM 2-deoxy-D-glucose. Within 10 min, the arteriole dilated to a mean value of 11.8 +/- 1.4 microns (n = 6; NS compared to control). Subsequent addition of 10(-5) M glibenclamide significantly reconstricted the vessels to a diameter of 8.6 +/- 0.5 micron (P less than 0.04). These data demonstrate that KATP channels are present on the preglomerular vasculature and that changes in intracellular ATP can directly influence afferent arteriolar tone via these channels.

Renal Function in Mice with Targeted Disruption of the A Isoform of the Na-K-2Cl Co-Transporter

Three different full-length splice isoforms of the Na-K-2Cl co-transporter (NKCC2/BSC1) are expressed along the thick ascending limb of Henle (TAL), designated NKCC2A, NKCC2B, and NKCC2F. NKCC2F is expressed in the medullary, NKCC2B mainly in the cortical, and NKCC2A in medullary and cortical portions of the TAL. NKCC2B and NKCC2A were shown to be coexpressed in the macula densa (MD) segment of the mouse TAL. The functional consequences of the existence of three different isoforms of NKCC2 are unclear. For studying the specific role of NKCC2A in kidney function, NKCC2A-/- mice were generated by homologous recombination. NKCC2A-/- mice were viable and showed no gross abnormalities. Ambient urine osmolarity was reduced significantly in NKCC2A-/- compared with wild-type mice, but water deprivation elevated urine osmolarity to similar levels in both genotypes. Baseline plasma renin concentration and the effects of a high- and a low-salt diet on plasma renin concentration were similar in NKCC2A+/+ and -/- mice. However, suppression of renin secretion by acute intravenous saline loading (5% of body weight), a measure of MD-dependent inhibition of renin secretion, was reduced markedly in NKCC2A-/- mice compared with wild-type mice. Cl and water absorption along microperfused loops of Henle of NKCC2A-/- mice were unchanged at normal flow rates but significantly reduced at supranormal flow. Tubuloglomerular feedback function curve as determined by stop flow pressure measurements was left-shifted in NKCC2A-/- compared with wild-type mice, with maximum responses being significantly diminished. In summary, NKCC2A activity seems to be required for MD salt sensing in the high Cl concentration range. Coexpression of both high- and low-affinity isoforms of NKCC2 may permit transport and Cl-dependent tubuloglomerular feedback regulation to occur over a wider Cl concentration range.

Effect of adenosine1-receptor blockade on renin release from rabbit isolated perfused juxtaglomerular apparatus.

Adenosine has been proposed to act within the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) as a mediator of the inhibition of renin secretion produced by a high NaCl concentration at the macula densa. To test this hypothesis, we studied the effects of the adenosine1 (A1)-receptor blocker 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (CPX) on renin release from single isolated rabbit JGAs with macula densa perfused. The A1-receptor agonist, N6-cyclohexyladenosine (CHA), applied in the bathing solution at 10(-7) M, was found to inhibit renin secretion, an effect that was completely blocked by adding CPX (10(-5) M) to the bath. Applied to the lumen, 10(-5) M CPX produced a modest stimulation of renin secretion rates suppressed by a high NaCl concentration at the macula densa (P less than 0.05). The effect of changing luminal NaCl concentration on renin secretion rate was examined in the presence of CPX (10(-7) and 10(-5) M) in the bathing solution and in vehicle control experiments. The control response to increasing luminal NaCl concentration was a marked suppression of renin secretion, that was maintained as long as luminal NaCl concentration was high and was promptly reversible when concentration was lowered. CPX did not alter renin release when luminal NaCl was low, but diminished the reduction caused by high NaCl (P less than 0.01). It is concluded that A1-receptors are located within the JGA, and that A1-receptor activation inhibits renin release. A high NaCl concentration at the macula densa appears to influence A1-receptor activation, but a low NaCl concentration does not. The findings support participation of adenosine in macula densa control of renin secretion.

Macula Densa Control of Renin Secretion and Preglomerular Resistance in Mice with Selective Deletion of the B Isoform of the Na,K,2Cl Co-Transporter

Na,K,2Cl co-transporter (NKCC2), the primary NaCl uptake pathway in the thick ascending limb of Henle, is expressed in three different full-length splice variants, called NKCC2F, NKCC2A, and NKCC2B. These variants, derived by differential splicing of the variable exon 4, show a distinct distribution pattern along the loop of Henle, but the functional significance of this organization is unclear. By introduction of premature stop codons into exon 4B, specific for the B isoform, mice with an exclusive NKCC2B deficiency were generated. Relative expression levels and distribution patterns of NKCC2A and NKCC2F were not altered in the NKCC2B-deficient mice. NKCC2B-deficient mice did not display a salt-losing phenotype; basal plasma renin and aldosterone levels were not different from those of wild-type mice. Ambient urine osmolarities, however, were slightly but significantly reduced. Distal Cl concentration was significantly elevated and loop of Henle Cl absorption was reduced in microperfused superficial loops of Henle of NKCC2B-deficient mice. Because of the presence of NKCC2A in the macula densa, maximum tubuloglomerular feedback responses were normal, but tubuloglomerular feedback function curves were right-shifted, indicating reduced sensitivity in the subnormal flow range. Plasma renin concentration in NKCC2B-deficient mice was reduced under conditions of salt loading compared with that in wild-type mice. This study shows the feasibility of generating mice with specific deletions of single splice variants. The mild phenotype of mice that are deficient in the B isoform of NKCC2 indicates a limited role for NKCC2B for overall salt retrieval. Nevertheless, the high-affinity NKCC2B contributes to salt absorption and macula densa function in the low NaCl concentration range.

Inhibition of adenosine-1 receptor-mediated preglomerular vasoconstriction in AT1Areceptor-deficient mice

The effect of the adenosine type 1 receptor agonist N 6-cyclohexyladenosine (CHA) on glomerular vascular reactivity was studied in male angiotensin II type 1A (AT1A) receptor knockout mice (9). Vascular reactivity was assessed as the response of stop-flow pressure (PSF) to infusion of CHA into loops of Henle using micropuncture techniques. In AT1A +/+ mice at ambient arterial blood pressure (96.7 ± 2.8 mmHg), the presence of CHA (10-5 M) in the perfusate increased PSF responses from 6.8 ± 0.6 to 14.3 ± 0.9 mmHg when the loop of Henle of the index nephron was perfused and from 0.7 ± 0.3 to 12.3 ± 1.0 mmHg when the loop of an adjacent nephron was perfused. At reduced arterial blood pressure (82.8 ± 1.3 mmHg), index nephron perfusion with CHA increased PSF responses from 4.5 ± 0.3 to 9.4 ± 0.4 mmHg. In AT1A -/- mice with a mean arterial blood pressure of 80 ± 1.9 mmHg, CHA increased PSF responses only from 0.1 ± 0.3 to 3.6 ± 0.54 mmHg during index nephron perfusion and from 0.25 ± 0.2 to 2.7 ± 0.55 mmHg during adjacent nephron perfusion, significantly less than in wild-type animals ( P < 0.001). Responses to CHA were intermediate in AT1A +/- mice. Thus AT1A receptor knockout mice show a markedly reduced constrictor response to CHA both in the presence and absence of simultaneous activation of the tubuloglomerular feedback system. These data support the notion of a functional interaction between adenosine and angiotensin II in the regulation of afferent arteriolar tone.

Renin and renin mRNA in proximal tubules of the rat kidney

The present study was undertaken to assess the presence of renin enzymatic activity and renin mRNA in proximal tubules of rat kidneys, and to determine the effect of converting enzyme inhibition (CEI) on proximal tubule renin gene expression. Proximal convoluted tubules (PCT), proximal straight tubules (PST), outer medullary collecting ducts (OMCD), and glomeruli (Gloms) were isolated by microdissection. Renin activity was measured in sonicated segments by radioimmunoassay. Renin mRNA levels were assessed using a quantitative PCR. Renin activity in PCT averaged 51 +/- 15 microGU/mm compared to 405 +/- 120 microGU/glomerulus. No measurable renin activity was found in PST and OMCD. Renin activity in both glomeruli and tubules had the same pH optimum, between 7.0 and 7.5. Renin mRNA was consistently detectable in cDNA prepared from PCT and PST, although its abundance per mm tubule was about 1/500th that found in one glomerulus. Renin mRNA was not detectable in OMCD. Tubular renin PCR product identity was confirmed by restriction digestion. CEI administration increased glomerular renin activity and renin mRNA, but not proximal tubular renin. The absence of a stimulatory effect of CEI on proximal tubule renin gene expression suggests the operation of different intracellular signals in control of renin synthesis in the proximal tubule than in the vascular compartment.