K. F. Coble

Effect of standardized ileal digestible lysine and added copper on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and fat quality of finishing pigs1

Two, 120-d, experiments were conducted to determine the effects of standardized ileal digestible (SID) lysine (Lys), added Cu (tribasic copper chloride, Intellibond C; Micronutrients, Inc., Indianapolis, IN), and duration of Cu supplementation on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and fat quality in finishing pigs. In Exp. 1, 1,248 pigs (PIC 337 × 1050; initially 29.0 kg) were allotted to one of six dietary treatments, balanced on average pen weight in a randomized complete-block design with 26 pigs per pen and eight replications per treatment. Treatments were arranged in a 3 × 2 factorial with main effects of SID Lys (85, 92.5, and 100% of the estimated requirement) and added Cu (0 or 150 mg/kg). There were no Cu × SID Lys interactions observed for growth performance or liver Cu concentrations. Increasing SID Lys increased (linear, P < 0.05) ADG, feed efficiency (G:F), final weight, and HCW. Pigs fed 150 mg/kg added Cu had marginally increased (P < 0.10) ADG, G:F, and final weight. Liver Cu concentrations were greater (P = 0.001) in pigs fed added Cu. A marginal Cu × Lys interaction (P = 0.052) was observed for jowl fat iodine value (IV) as increasing SID Lys in pigs fed added Cu increased IV, but decreased IV in pigs not fed added Cu. For Exp. 2, 1,267 pigs (PIC 337 × 1,050; initially 26.4 kg) were allotted to one of eight dietary treatments arranged in a split-plot design. Whole-plot treatments included SID Lys (92.5 or 100% of the estimated requirement) and within each Lys level, there was a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments with either 0 or 150 mg/kg added Cu and two feeding durations (60 or 120 d). Added Cu did not affect growth performance. Pigs fed 100% of the SID Lys requirement had increased (P < 0.05) ADG, G:F, and final weight compared with those fed 92.5%. A Cu × SID Lys interaction (P < 0.05) was observed for carcass yield and backfat depth. Pigs fed 92.5% SID Lys had increased carcass yield and decreased backfat depth with added Cu; however, pigs fed 100% SID Lys had decreased carcass yield and increased backfat depth with added Cu. Hot carcass weight was increased (P < 0.05) by feeding 100% SID Lys and was marginally (P < 0.10) increased by adding Cu to the diets. In summary, the growth response to added Cu was inconsistent between experiments; however, increasing SID Lys improved growth performance and carcass characteristics.

Effects of withdrawing high-fiber ingredients before marketing on finishing pig growth performance, carcass characteristics, and intestinal weights

Two experiments were conducted to determine the duration of high-fiber ingredient removal from finishing pig diets before marketing to restore carcass yield and carcass fat iodine value (IV), similar to pigs continuously fed a corn-soybean meal diet. In experiment 1, 288 pigs (initially 38.4 ± 0.3 kg body weight [BW]) were used in an 88-d study and fed either a low-fiber corn-soybean meal diet from day 0 to 88 or a high-fiber diet containing 30% corn distillers dried grains with solubles and 19% wheat middlings until day 20, 15, 10, 5, or 0 before slaughter and switched to the low-fiber corn-soybean meal diet thereafter. Diets were not balanced for net energy. From day 0 to 88, pigs continuously fed the high-fiber diet tended to have increased average daily feed intake (P = 0.072) and decreased G:F and carcass yield (P = 0.001) compared with pigs fed the low-fiber corn-soybean meal diet. Pigs continuously fed the high-fiber diet had greater (P < 0.010) IV of jowl, backfat, belly, and ham collar fat than those fed the low-fiber corn-soybean meal diet throughout. As days of withdrawal increased, pigs previously fed the high-fiber diet had increased carcass yield (quadratic; P = 0.039). Pigs continuously fed the high-fiber diet had heavier (percentage of hot carcass weight [HCW]) full large intestines (P = 0.003) than pigs fed the corn-soybean meal diet. Full large intestine weight decreased (linear; P = 0.018) as withdrawal time increased. Belly fat IV tended (linear; P = 0.080) to improve as withdrawal time increased. In experiment 2, a total of 1,089 pigs (initially 44.5 ± 0.1 kg BW) were used in a 96-d study with the same dietary treatments as in experiment 1, except pigs were fed the high-fiber diet until day 24, 19, 14, 9, or 0 before slaughter and then switched to the corn-soybean meal diet. Pigs fed the high-fiber diet throughout had decreased average daily gain and G:F (P = 0.001) compared with those fed the low-fiber corn-soybean meal diet. For pigs initially fed the high-fiber diet and then switched to the low-fiber corn-soybean meal diet, G:F tended to improve (linear; P = 0.070) as withdrawal period increased. Pigs fed the high-fiber diet throughout had decreased HCW (P = 0.001) compared with those fed the low-fiber corn-soybean meal diet and HCW marginally increased (quadratic; P = 0.077) as withdrawal period increased. In summary, switching pigs from a high-fiber diet to a corn-soybean meal diet for up to 24 d before market increased carcass yield (experiment 1) or HCW (experiment 2) with the improvement most prominent during the first 5 to 9 d after withdrawal.

Effect of roller mill configuration on growth performance of nursery and finishing pigs and milling characteristics1

Three experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of roller mill configuration on growth performance of nursery and finishing pigs, feed preference, and feed mill throughput. The four experimental treatments included corn ground through a roller mill using two, three, four sets of rolls in a fine-grind configuration, or four sets of rolls in a coarse grind configuration. The same roller mill was used for all configurations with the appropriate lower rolls completely open when using the two or three roll pair configurations. Across all studies, mean particle size averaged approximately 540, 435, 270, and 385 µm for the four roller mill configurations, respectively. In Exp. 1, 320 pigs (DNA 400 × 200, initially 10.7 ± 0.27 kg BW) were randomly allotted to treatments with five pigs per pen and 16 pens per treatment in a 21-d growth trial. While there were no evidence of differences observed for ADG or ADFI, pigs fed corn ground using the 4-high coarse configuration had a marginally significant (P = 0.091) improvement in G:F compared with those fed with the 2-high configuration, with others intermediate. In Exp. 2, 90 pigs (PIC 327 × 1050, initially 12.1 ± 0.25 kg BW) were randomly allotted to one of three diet comparisons to determine feed preference between the 2-high, 4-high fine, and 4-high coarse configurations. When given a choice, pigs consumed more (P < 0.05) of the diet containing corn ground through the 2-high roller mill (67%) or 4-high coarse configuration (63%) compared with corn ground through the 4-high fine configuration. In Exp. 3, 922 finishing pigs (PIC TR4 × [FAST Large white × PIC Line 2], initially 40.1 ± 0.36 kg BW) were used in a 97-d experiment with pens of pigs randomly allotted by initial BW to the same experimental treatments used in Exp. 1. There were 21 pigs per pen and 11 pens per treatment. Pigs fed corn ground with the 2-high configuration had greater (P < 0.05) ADG compared with those fed corn ground using the 3-high configuration. Pigs fed corn ground with the 4-high fine configuration had the poorest (P < 0.05) ADG. No differences were observed in G:F. Grinding rate (tonne/h) was greatest (P < 0.05) for the 4-high coarse configuration, while net electricity consumption (kWh/tonne) was lowest (P < 0.05) for the 2-high configuration and greatest for the 4-high fine configuration. In summary, nursery pig G:F tended to be greatest using the 4-high coarse configuration, and finishing pig ADG was maximized using the 2- and 4-high coarse configurations.

Using network flow modeling to determine pig flow in a commercial production system

Abstract The systematic approach to raising pigs in a multi-site production system, in terms of where the pigs are housed and how long they are fed, is generally called pig flow. This complex process is most often approached in a segmented fashion, not looking at all barns at the same time in relation to each other. Linear programming, the basis of most nutritional formulation packages and logistics services, provides a mathematical means for characterizing pig flow that allows a producer to look at the entire flow of pigs in a system at the same time. We describe a teaching model that provides the foundation to characterize pig flow in a commercial production system. The teaching model is built in Microsoft Excel ® and incorporates key components of production such as growth rate, mortality, stocking density, seasonality, packer grid pricing, and marketing. The results from this teaching model are sound and provide the foundation for a larger model that is needed for full implementation within a production system, proving this model behaves as expected. The generalizability of the model and its assumptions allows for the inclusion of more barns, a more precise measure of time, and the ability to change the assumptions utilized in this teaching scenario, which are needed for direct application in a production system.

Effects of distillers dried grains with solubles and added fat fed immediately before slaughter on growth performance and carcass characteristics of finishing pigs

The addition of dietary fat has been shown to increase HCW and carcass yield in pigs fed low-fiber corn-soy diets; however, data on added fat in high-fiber, low-energy diets is less available. Therefore, the potential for dietary fat to ameliorate the negative effect high-fiber diets have on carcass yield during the last 3 wk before slaughter is of high importance. This experiment was conducted to determine the interactive effects of 30% distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) and 5% added fat fed before slaughter on growth performance and carcass characteristics. A total of 1,258 pigs in 2 groups (initially 105.8 ± 0.1 kg BW; group 1 PIC 337 × 1,050; group 2 PIC 327 × 1,050) were used in a 20-d experiment. All pigs were fed a common diet with 30% DDGS until 20 d before slaughter. Then, all pens were weighed and allotted to treatments with 20 replicate pens per treatment. Dietary treatments were arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial with 2 diet types (corn-soybean meal-based with or without 30% DDGS) and added fat (0 or 5%; group 1 = tallow; group 2 = choice white grease). Diets were formulated to a constant standardized ileal digestible Lys:NE ratio. There were no treatment × group interactions for any response criteria. Thus, data for the 2 groups were combined for analysis. Overall, there was a tendency for a diet type × added fat interaction for ADG ( = 0.054), whereas this was significant for G:F ( = 0.008). This was a result of 5% added fat increasing ADG and G:F to a greater magnitude for pigs fed the diet containing 30% DDGS (8.6 and 10.4%, respectively) than for pigs fed the corn-soy diet (2.0 and 2.9%, respectively). Although diet type did not affect final live BW, pigs fed the diet containing DDGS had decreased HCW and carcass yield ( < 0.05). Adding 5% fat did not affect carcass yield. In conclusion, adding 5% fat to finishing pig diets containing 30% DDGS approximately 20 d before slaughter improved ADG and G:F but did not overcome the reduction in carcass yield from feeding DDGS.

Effects of Feeding a Finishing Diet Blended with Different Phases of Nursery Diets on Growth Performance and Economics of Nursery Pigs

A total of 1,260 weaned pigs (PIC TR4 × (Fast LW × PIC L02); initially 12.9 lb BW)) were housed in a commercial research barn and used in a 47-d study to determine the effects of blending a finishing diet into different phases of nursery diets on pig growth performance. Pens of pigs were blocked by initial BW and gender and allotted to 1 of 4 treatment groups (15 pens/treatment). In a 5-phase feeding program, the 4 treatments were: 1) standard nursery diets throughout (control); or standard nursery diets with 5.5 lb/pig of late finishing feed blended at the beginning of 2) Phase 2; 3) Phase 3; or 4) Phase 4. Phase changes were based on feed budgets. From d 0 to 7, all pigs received the same standard Phase 1 diet and had similar growth performance. Compared with pigs from control, blending finishing feed into the Phase 2 period resulted in poorer (P < 0.01) ADG, ADFI, and F/G from d 7 to 14, poorer (P = 0.025) F/G from d 21 to 28, decreased (P = 0.028) ADG from d 28 to 35, and decreased (P < 0.05) ADFI and F/G from d 35 to 47. Blending finishing feed during Phase 3 resulted in worsened (P < 0.001) ADG and F/G from d 14 to 21, decreased (P = 0.010) ADG from d 21 to 28, and lower (P < 0.05) ADFI and F/G from d 35 to 47 compared with control pigs. Pigs that received blended diet in Phase 4 had impaired (P < 0.001) ADG and F/G from d 21 to 28, but had improved (P = 0.010) F/G from d 35 to 47. Overall (d 0 to 47), blending the finishing diet into Phase 2 decreased (P < 0.05) ADG, ADFI, and final BW, but did not affect F/G compared with control pigs or pigs that had finishing feed blended into the Phase 4. Blending finishing feed into Phase 3 or 4 did not influence overall growth performance. Pigs that had finishing feed blended into Phase 2 or 3 had lower (P < 0.05) overall feed costs than pigs from control and Phase 4 blending treatments. Gain value was decreased (P < 0.05) when finishing feed was blended into Phase 2 compared with the control or when feed was blending into Phase 4. However, no differences in feed cost per lb of gain and only numerical differences in income over feed cost were observed among the treatments. In conclusion, feeding finishing feed in early nursery phase negatively affected pig growth performance; however, blending approximately 5.5 lb/pig finishing feed into nursery diets for pigs greater than 22 lb BW did not affect overall growth performance.

Effects of Increasing Zn from Zinc Sulfate or Zinc Hydroxychloride on Finishing Pig Growth Performance, Carcass Characteristics, and Economic Return

A total of 1,008 pigs [TR4 (Fast × L02 PIC; initially 70.6 lb BW)] were used in a 103-d growth study to determine the effects of Zn source and level on finishing pig growth performance, carcass characteristics, and economic return. The 6 dietary treatments were arranged as a 2 × 3 factorial with main effects of Zn source (ZnSO4; Agrium Advance Technology, Loveland, CO, or Zn hydroxychloride; Intellibond-Z®; Micronutrients, Indianapolis, IN) and level (50, 100, or 150 ppm added Zn). The trace mineral premix was formulated to contain no added Zn. There were 21 pigs per pen and 8 pens per treatment. Overall, there was no effect of Zn source for growth performance criteria observed. Increasing added Zn maximized (quadratic, P = 0.007) ADG when diets contained 100 ppm Zn; however, F/G tended to worsen (source × level, linear, P = 0.068) as Zn from Zn hydroxychloride increased, but was relatively unchanged when pigs were fed increasing Zn from ZnSO4. Carcass yield increased (linear, P = 0.027) as Zn level increased. Pigs fed diets with Zn hydroxychloride had heavier (P = 0.041) HCW, and increased HCW ADG (P = 0.036) than those fed ZnSO4. Hot carcass weight and HCW ADG were maximized (quadratic, P ≤ 0.006) when diets contained 100 ppm Zn. There was a tendency for income over feed cost (IOFC) to be maximized when pigs were fed diets with 100 ppm Zn when economic analysis was calculated on both a constant day (quadratic, P = 0.059) and constant carcass weight (quadratic, P = 0.070) basis, respectively. In summary, these results suggest that a total of 100 ppm added Zn is adequate to maximize ADG, HCW, HCW ADG, and IOFC, but F/G worsened as Zn level increased. Zinc source did not affect growth performance; however, pigs fed Zn hydroxychloride had increased HCW and HCW ADG compared to those fed ZnSO4.

Effects of Grinding Corn through a 2-, 3-, or 4-High Roller Mill on Milling Characteristics, and Commercial Finishing Pig Growth Performance and Carcass Characteristics

A total of 922 pigs [PIC TR4 × (FAST Large white × PIC Landrace), initially 88.3 lb] were used in a 97-d experiment to determine the effects of grinding corn through various roller mill configurations on milling characteristics as well as growth performance and carcass characteristics of finishing pigs in a commercial setting. Pens were randomly allotted to 1 of 4 experimental treatments by initial BW with 11 pens per treatment and 21 pigs per pen. All diets were fed in 5 phases with the same corn-soybean mealbased diets containing 20% dried distiller’s grains with solubles. Experimental treatments included: (1) corn ground to 685 μm using 2 sets of rolls (2-high); (2) corn ground to 577 μm using 3 sets of rolls (3-high); (3) corn ground to 360 μm using 4 sets of rolls in a fine grind configuration (4-high fine); and (4) corn ground to 466 μm using 4 sets of rolls in a coarse grind configuration (4-high coarse). The same roller mill was used for all configurations with the appropriate lower rolls completely open when using 2 or 3 sets of rolls. Grinding rate (tons per hour) was greatest (P < 0.05) for the 2-high and 4-high coarse configurations, followed by the 3-high configuration and lowest for the 4-high fine configuration. Electricity cost was lowest (P < 0.05) per ton of ground corn for the 2-high configuration, and was greatest for the 4-high fine configuration. Pigs fed diets containing corn ground with the 2-high configuration had the greatest (P < 0.05) ADFI and ADG, and pigs fed diets with corn ground using the 4-high fine configuration had the poorest ADFI and ADG. Pigs fed diets with corn ground using the 3-high or 4-high coarse configuration were intermediate. There were no differences (P > 0.05) in F/G, caloric efficiency, or carcass characteristics among pigs fed diets ground with different roller mill configurations. Feed cost/lb of gain was lowest (P < 0.05) for the 4-high coarse configuration and revenue/pig was greatest (P < 0.05) for the 2-high and 4-high coarse configurations. Income over feed cost (IOFC) was lowest (P < 0.05) for pigs fed diets with corn ground using the 4-high fine configuration; however, there were no differences (P > 0.05) in IOFC among the other milling configurations. In our study, roller mill configuration had a significant impact on grinding electricity cost as well as grinding rate. However, when particle size was reduced from 685 μm to 360 μm, ADFI and ADG decreased, and there was no improvement in feed efficiency. Therefore, our study did not indicate a benefit in feed efficiency or economic return of finishing pigs when corn particle size was reduced below 685 μm by grinding through a roller mill in the commercial setting in this experiment.

Effect of Diet Type and Added Copper on Growth Performance, Carcass Characteristics, Energy Digestibility, Gut Morphology, and Mucosal mRNA Expression of Finishing Pigs

A total of 757 pigs (PIC 337 × 1050, initially 60.8 lb) were used to determine the effects of added Cu (TBCC, tribasic copper chloride, IntelliBond C; Micronutrients, Inc., Indianapolis, IN) and diet type on growth performance, carcass characteristics, energy digestibility, gut morphology, and mucosal mRNA expression of finishing pigs. Pens of pigs were allotted to 1 of 4 dietary treatments, balanced on average pen weight in a randomized complete-block design with 26 to 28 pigs per pen and 7 replications per treatment. Treatments were arranged as a 2 × 2 factorial with main effects of diet type, a corn-soybean meal-based diet or a high by-product diet with 30% distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) and 15% bakery meal (by-product), and with or without added Cu (0 or 150 ppm added Cu). There were no Cu × diet type interactions for growth performance. Overall, neither added Cu nor diet type influenced growth performance. Pigs fed the by-product diet had decreased carcass yield (P = 0.007) and HCW F/G (P = 0.013), and tended to have decreased HCW (P = 0.067) and HCW ADG (P = 0.056) compared to pigs fed the corn-soybean meal-based diet. A Cu × diet type interaction (P < 0.05) existed for DM and GE digestibility during the early finishing period as added Cu improved digestibility of DM and GE in the corn-soybean mealbased diet, but not in the by-product diet. During the late finishing period, added Cu increased DM and GE digestibility (P = 0.060), while pigs fed the by-product diet had decreased DM and GE digestibility (P = 0.001). For gut morphology, pigs fed added Cu had decreased crypt depth (P = 0.017) in the distal small intestine. Relative mRNA expression of intestinal fatty acid binding protein (iFABP) was decreased (P = 0.032) in pigs fed added Cu. In summary, adding 150 ppm added Cu or including 30% DDGS and 15% bakery meal into a corn-soybean meal-based diet did not influence growth performance. However, HCW ADG and HCW G/F were reduced in pigs fed the by-product diet. Only minor differences in gut morphology or mRNA expression were observed from pigs fed diets with high levels of Cu or by-products compared to those fed a corn-soybean meal-based diet.

Effects of Grinding Corn through a 2-, 3-, or 4-High Roller Mill on Pig Performance and Feed Preference of 25- to 50-lb Nursery Pigs

A total of 410 pigs were used in two experiments to determine the effects of grinding corn through various roller mill configurations on feed preference and performance of nursery pigs. In Exp. 1, 320 pigs (DNA 400 × 200, initially 23.6 lb) were randomly allotted to 1 of 4 dietary treatments with 16 pens per treatment and 5 pigs per pen for a 21-d growth trial. The 4 dietary treatments used the same cornsoybean meal-based formulation that was mixed from the same batch of ingredients. Corn was ground through the same 4-high roller mill, but using different roller configurations. Experimental diets were: (1) feed with corn fraction ground to 650 μm using 2 sets of rolls (2-high), (2) feed with corn fraction ground to 495 μm using 3 sets of rolls (3-high), (3) feed with corn fraction ground to 340 μm using 4 sets of rolls in a fine grind configuration (4-high fine), and (4) feed with the corn fraction ground to 490 μm using 4 sets of rolls in a coarse grind configuration (4-high coarse). The same roller mill was used for all configurations with the appropriate lower rolls completely open when using the 2 or 3 sets of rolls configurations. In Exp. 2, 90 pigs (PIC 327 × 200, initially 27.0 lb) were randomly allotted to one of three diet comparisons to determine feed preference. The 3 diets used were from the 2-high roller mill configuration or the fine or coarse 4-high roller mill ground corn. Each pen contained 2 feeders, each containing 1 of the 3 treatment diets. The 3 diet comparisons tested were 2 vs. 4-high fine (1 vs. 3), 2-high vs. 4-high coarse (1 vs. 4), and 4-high fine vs. 4-high coarse (3 vs. 4). Feeders were rotated once daily within each pen for the 7-d study. There were 5 pigs per pen, and 6 pens per treatment. In Exp. 1, there were no differences (P > 0.05) in ADG, ADFI or F/G among roller mill configurations (Table 5). Similarly, no differences were observed (P > 0.05) for caloric efficiency or economics among roller mill configurations. In Exp. 2, when given a choice, pigs consumed 67% (P < 0.05) of the diet containing corn ground through the 2-high roller mill compared to only 33% from the diet containing 4-high fine corn (Table 6). There was no difference (P > 0.05) in feed consumption of 2-high roller mill corn and the diet manufactured with the 4-high roller mill in a coarse configuration (50.3 to 49.7%, respectively). However pigs consumed 63% (P < 0.05) of the diet manufactured using the 4-high roller mill in a coarse configuration and only 37% from the diet using the 4-high mill in a fine grind configuration. In the study, roller mill configuration had a significant impact on feed preference in nursery pigs, most likely as a result of differences in particle size. However, when nursery pigs did not have the choice between diets, there were no differences in gain, feed consumption, feed efficiency, or economics. Therefore, the study did not indicate a benefit in nursery pig performance or economic return when particle size was reduced below 650 μm.