Karl E. C. Brennan

Current Constraints and Future Directions in Estimating Coextinction

Coextinction is a poorly quantified phenomenon, but results of recent modeling suggest high losses to global biodiversity through the loss of dependent species when hosts go extinct. There are critical gaps in coextinction theory, and we outline these in a framework to direct future research toward more accurate estimates of coextinction rates. Specifically, the most critical priorities include acquisition of more accurate host data, including the threat status of host species; acquisition of data on the use of hosts by dependent species across a wide array of localities, habitats, and breadth of both hosts and dependents; development of models that incorporate correlates of nonrandom host and dependent extinctions, such as phylogeny and traits that increase extinction-proneness; and determination of whether dependents are being lost before their hosts and adjusting models accordingly. Without synergistic development of better empirical data and more realistic models to estimate the number of cothreatened species and coextinction rates, the contribution of coextinction to global declines in biodiversity will remain unknown and unmanaged.

Considering Extinction of Dependent Species during Translocation, Ex Situ Conservation, and Assisted Migration of Threatened Hosts

Translocation, introduction, reintroduction, and assisted migrations are species conservation strategies that are attracting increasing attention, especially in the face of climate change. However, preventing the extinction of the suite of dependent species whose host species are threatened is seldom considered, and the effects on dependent species of moving threatened hosts are unclear. There is no published guidance on how to decide whether to move species, given this uncertainty. We examined the dependent-host system of 4 disparate taxonomic groups: insects on the feather-leaf banksia (Banksia brownii), montane banksia (B. montana), and Stirling Range beard heath (Leucopogon gnaphalioides); parasites of wild cats; mites and ticks on Duvaucels gecko (Hoplodactylus duvaucelii) and tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus); and internal coccidian parasites of Cirl Bunting (Emberiza cirlus) and Hihi (Notiomystis cincta). We used these case studies to demonstrate a simple process for use in species- and community-level assessments of efforts to conserve dependents with their hosts. The insects dependent on Stirling Range beard heath and parasites on tigers (Panthera tigris) appeared to represent assemblages that would not be conserved by ex situ host conservation. In contrast, for the cases of dependent species we examined involving a single dependent species (internal parasites of birds and the mite Geckobia naultina on Duvaucels gecko), ex situ conservation of the host species would also conserve the dependent species. However, moving dependent species with their hosts may be insufficient to maintain viable populations of the dependent species, and additional conservation strategies such as supplementing populations may be needed.

Refining sampling protocols for inventorying invertebrate biodiversity: influence of drift-fence length and pitfall trap diameter on spiders

Abstract The limited resources available to inventory biodiversity and conduct ecological monitoring requires efficient protocols for sampling with pitfall traps. Here we consider adding different length drift-fences to pitfall traps on spiders. Four different fencing treatments (no fence, or fence lengths of 2, 4 and 6 m) were evaluated in combination with three trap diameters (4.3, 7.0 and 11.1 cm). Three-way ANOVAs revealed no significant interaction effects between any combinations of fencing treatments, trap size or the spatial positioning of transects within the study site along which traps were arranged. Post-hoc tests showed fences significantly increased the abundance of individuals and richness of spider families, and species collected. Traps with 6 m fences were significantly higher in all of these variables than traps with 2 m fences. ANOSIMs revealed taxonomic composition differed significantly between fenced and unfenced traps at familial, and specific ranks. Among fenced traps, taxonomic composition was influenced primarily by trap diameter rather than fence length. ANOSIMs showed significant differences in taxonomic composition between each trap diameter for fenced traps. An optimal combination of fencing treatment and trap diameter was determined by constructing smoothed species accumulation curves for increasing numbers of traps. Four criteria were considered: equivalent numbers of traps, standardized cumulative trap circumference, standardized cumulative fence length (fenced traps only) and standardized cumulative handling time. For the same number of traps, 11.1 cm traps with 4 and 6 m fences collected the most species. At a standardized trap circumference, long fences were best, with all trap sizes catching similar numbers of species. When fence length was standardized, 11.1 cm traps with 2 or 4 m fences collected the most species. At a standardized handling time all traps caught very similar numbers of species, although most 11.1 cm diameter traps collected more species than other trap sizes and those with 4 m fences were most efficient. Given the similar performance of fenced and unfenced traps for standardized handling time, we outline reasons why unfenced traps may be best.

Identifying and managing threatened invertebrates through assessment of coextinction risk.

Invertebrates with specific host species may have a high probability of extinction when their hosts have a high probability of extinction. Some of these invertebrates are more likely to go extinct than their hosts, and under some circumstances, specific actions to conserve the host may be detrimental to the invertebrate. A critical constraint to identifying such invertebrates is uncertainty about their level of host specificity. We used two host-breadth models that explicitly incorporated uncertainty in the host specificity of an invertebrate species. We devised a decision protocol to identify actions that may increase the probability of persistence of a given dependent species. The protocol included estimates from the host-breadth models and decision nodes to identify cothreatened species. We applied the models and protocol to data on 1055 insects (186 species) associated with 2 threatened (as designated by the Australian Government) plant species and 19 plant species that are not threatened to determine whether any insect herbivores have the potential to become extinct if the plant becomes extinct. According to the host-breadth models, 18 species of insect had high host specificity to the threatened plant species. From these 18 insects, the decision protocol highlighted 6 species that had a high probability of extinction if their hosts were to become extinct (3% of all insects examined). The models and decision protocol have added objectivity and rigor to the process of deciding which dependent invertebrates require conservation action, particularly when dealing with largely unknown and speciose faunas.

Multi-scale patterns in the host specificity of plant-dwelling arthropods: the influence of host plant and temporal variation on species richness and assemblage composition of true bugs (Hemiptera)

The influence of temporal variation in the host specificity of invertebrates to estimates of biodiversity is rarely considered. While patterns at large spatial scales have stimulated much attention, such comparisons are constrained for southern-hemisphere biomes because the patterning of invertebrates on plants is largely unknown. Here, we analyse variation of plant-dwelling Hemiptera from 15 understorey plant species over 18 months in the south-west Australian biodiversity hotspot. Analyses showed significant interactions in species composition between sampling period and plant species. Fauna that were “effectively specialized” (host-specificity index) to plants changed with season, although this was also related to the number of singletons and overall species richness. Sampling from a single season also overestimated the degree of host specificity by 52% and underestimated the perception of species richness when an outbreak of a particular herbivore occurred. High host-specificity values (12.7 hemipteran species per plant) support the case for high estimates of global arthropod richness.