Katherine Morton

The emergence of NGOs in China and their transnational linkages: implications for domestic reform

In addressing the question of how Chinas rapid socioeconomic transformation is changing the nature of its international engagement we need to move beyond a traditional focus on state-centric analysis. Obviously a major stimulus for Chinas international engagement over the past 25 years of reform and opening has come from non-state economic activity. Growing economic interdependence, accelerated after Chinas accession into the World Trade Organization, provides the strongest argument in favour of a peaceful rise of China scenario in which both regional and global security are enhanced rather than threatened. Far less attention, however, has been given to the role and influence of Chinese non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and their transnational linkages. I argue in this article that in order to obtain a more comprehensive picture of Chinas ongoing process of reform and opening to the outside world we need to incorporate a civil society dimension into our analysis. This is of particular relevance to ongoing foreign policy debates over democracy and human rights promotion in China. Indeed, in the absence of a more detailed understanding of current developments taking place at the grassroots, international support for progressive reform runs the risk of undermining positive change from below.

China and Environmental Security in the Age of Consequences

Global climate change is now one of the biggest challenges facing humankind in the twenty-first century. It is occurring at a time when Chinas economic rise is leading to substantial environmental problems combined with escalating demands on global resources. Many commentators have warned of impending economic collapse, rising social conflicts, and large-scale public health disasters. 1 It is not only Chinas modernisation drive that is at stake. The spill-over effects across borders also present security concerns at the regional and global levels. From a global security perspective, the emerging environmental crisis is generally cast in highly negative terms. Limited attention has been given to the question of whether China can adapt. In the case of climate change this is now an urgent task. On the Qinghai–Tibetan plateau climate impacts pose significant security risks for China and the Asia region. The ability to adapt is of critical importance to the future sustainability of these ecosystems as well as the millions of people they serve.

China's Ambition in the South China Sea: Is a Legitimate Maritime Order Possible?

Chinas expanding presence in the South China Sea is now a major source of escalating tensions leading to a spiral of confrontation with the United States and the littoral states of east Asia. Under these conditions, conventional analysis suggests that serious conflict is almost inevitable. This article provides an alternative perspective by situating Chinas growing ambition within the broader transformation of maritime order in the contemporary era. On the basis of a new interpretation of maritime order, the study provides a deeper examination of Chinas motivations in relation to the maritime disputes, US–China strategic competition, and Xi Jinpings new strategy to achieve the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. The analysis of the legal, strategic and political dimensions of Chinas positioning in the South China Sea suggests that maritime nationalism rather than the quest for maritime hegemony is a central motivation driving Chinese actions. A second important insight is that the current approach is strengthening Chinas control, but undermining its legitimacy in the eyes of other major powers and stakeholders. By focusing on legitimacy as an organizing principle in maritime affairs, it becomes clear that the Chinese leadership stands to gain from integrating its ambition more fully into the evolving maritime order.

Climate and Security in Asia and the Pacific (Food, Water and Energy)

The impacts of increasing natural climate disasters are threatening food security in the Asia-Pacific region. Rice is Asia’s most important staple food. Climate variability and change directly impact rice production, through changes in rainfall, temperature and CO2 concentrations. The key for sustainable rice crop is water management. Adaptation can occur through shifts of cropping to higher latitudes and can profit from river systems (via irrigation) so far not considered. New opportunities arise to produce more than one crop per year in cooler areas. Asian wheat production in 2005 represents about 43 % of the global total. Changes in agronomic practices, such as earlier plant dates and cultivar substitution will be required. Fisheries play a crucial role in providing food security with the contribution of fish to dietary animal protein being very high in the region – up to 90 % in small island developing states (SIDS). With the warming of the Pacific and Indian Oceans and increased acidification, marine ecosystems are presently under stress. Despite these trends, maintaining or enhancing food production from the sea is critical. However, future sustainability must be maintained whilst also securing biodiversity conservation. Improved fisheries management to address the existing non-climate threats remains paramount in the Indian and Pacific Oceans with sustainable management regimes being established. Climate-related impacts are expected to increase in magnitude over the coming decades, thus preliminary adaptation to climate change is valuable.

Responding to Climate Change in the Region: New Partnerships and Chinese Leadership

Global climate change is the most serious and complex problem facing international society in the twenty-first century. The scientific uncertainties and political tensions inherent in resolving the problem mean that it cannot be addressed on the basis of a traditional top-down approach. Framing climate change as a governance issue focuses attention upon the importance of reflexive, inclusive and flexible decision-making. It also underscores the role of leadership and institutions (both formal and informal) that, in turn, raise questions about the locus of authority as well as normative concerns over equity and justice.

China and Global Climate Policy-Making: Leadership in a State of Flux

1. Introduction: China and the International System - Structure, Society and Context Xiaoming Huang and Robert G. Patman Part 1: Contending Indentities and Evolving Interests: China in Search of Itself 2. Chinese Thinking about World Order David Shambaugh 3. Core Interests and Great Power Responsibilities: The Evolving Pattern of Chinas Foreign Policy Suisheng Zhao 4. International Structure and Chinas Strategy and Options Canrong Jin Part 2: Transforming Wealth and Capacity to Institutional Power, Policy Outcomes and Political Influence 5. Commercial Diplomacy: Preferential Trade Agreements and Soft Power Projection Marc Lanteigne 6. Chinas Quest for Greater Influence in Global Economic Governance: Accomplishments and Limitations Gerald Chan, Pak K. Lee and Lai-Ha Chan 7. Turning Material Capabilities to Leadership: China in Southeast Asia Marco Bunte and Dirk Nabers 8. China and the Evolving Regional Order in the South Pacific Jian Yang Part 3: International System and Rising Power: Impact, Interaction and Mutual Constitution 9. Measuring the Impact of the Chinese Economy Peter E. Robertson 10. Fear and Chinas Rise: Responses from Northeast Asia Nicholas Khoo and John Bailey 11. China and Global Climate Policy Making: Leadership in a State of Flux Katherine Morton 12. Global Economy, Development Imperatives and Mutual Interests: China and Africa Ian Taylor 13. Conclusion: A Rising China in a Changing International System Xiaoming Huang

Guest editors’ introduction: engaging China

Pursuing relations with China is one of the most important challenges now confronting Australian foreign policy. Important changes affecting China’s domestic and international policies in recent years have underscored this reality. These have included 11 September and the US ‘war on terror’, the change to a third generation of Chinese leadership under President Hu Jintao, and the continued economic growth following China’s accession to the World Trade Organization. In particular, China’s sustained growth performance and enhanced economic interdependence, including in the resources field, has raised key questions relating to its future role in international politics, the likely consequences for regional and world order, and how Australia will be affected by these trends. One set of policy responses looks to the economic benefits from China’s growth. It sees China’s growing integration with the international community as a positive socialising influence. Another response has been a concern about China’s future potential for assertive or aggressive actions, commonly embraced in the term, the ‘China threat’. Beijing has responded to such concerns by developing the idea of China’s ‘peaceful rise’ or ‘peaceful development’. Perhaps important as an international statement of its intentions, it may be more important as an internal debate about what China’s future hopes and objectives should be. The concept also covers some important aspects of the close interrelationship between China’s domestic developments and its international policies. Since China’s rise links economic and strategic issues, the questions that arise are whether the economic and security implications are likely to be positive or negative for those outside China. This special issue on ‘Engaging China’ brings together scholars with an interest in the changing nature of China’s engagement with the outside world. It developed out of a workshop held at the Australian National University in May 2005 on ‘China’s International Engagement in Transition’ convened by Stuart Harris and Katherine Morton. The purpose of the workshop was to reflect on the ways in which recent developments at both the domestic and international levels are shaping Chinese foreign policy as well as changing the prospects for international engagement. Just as critical was the question of how these developments are affecting the Sino /Australian bilateral relationship. From China’s past actions, what can we conclude about its international behaviour and its likely interactions at the global and regional level in the medium term (ten years) future? What are the important motivations in China’s recent domestic and international behaviour and what will be the main drivers in that