Keith C. Behnke

Feed manufacturing technology: current issues and challenges

Abstract Feed cost represents the major item in the cost of animal production. Without doubt, efforts will continue to refine feed processing techniques to reduce the cost of feed and to increase the value of feed for a target animal. The possibilities for improvements in feed processing are endless; however, the cost of each innovation must be carefully weighed against demonstrated improvements in animal performance. In some cases, changes in feed processing technology will be dictated, not by animal response, but by other motivations such as regulatory guidelines or human health concerns. A case in point is the use of hydro-thermal processes, such as pelleting, extrusion, or roasting to reduce the microbiological load in the feed. These processes have been demonstrated to reduce microbial population to near zero, but may have little or no impact on human health risk.

Effect of crude glycerol on pellet mill production and nursery pig growth performance

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of diets containing crude glycerol on pellet mill production efficiency and nursery pig growth performance. In a pilot study, increasing crude glycerol (0, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15%) in a corn-soybean meal diet was evaluated for pellet mill production efficiency. All diets were steam conditioned to 65.5 degrees C and pelleted through a pellet mill equipped with a die that had an effective thickness of 31.8 mm and holes 3.96 mm in diameter. Each diet was replicated by manufacturing a new batch of feed 3 times. Increasing crude glycerol increased both the standard (linear and quadratic, P < 0.01) and modified (linear, P < 0.01; quadratic, P </= 0.02) pellet durability indexes up to 9% with no further benefit thereafter. The addition of crude glycerol decreased (linear; P < 0.01) production rate (t/h) and production efficiency (kWh/t). In a 26-d growth assay, 182 pigs (initial BW, 11.0 +/- 1.3 kg; 5 or 6 pigs/pen) were fed 1 of 7 corn-soybean meal-based diets with no added soy oil or crude glycerol (control), the control diet with 3 or 6% added soy oil, 3 or 6% added crude glycerol, and 6 or 12% addition of a 50:50 (wt/wt) soy oil/crude glycerol blend with 5 pens/diet. The addition of crude glycerol lowered (P < 0. 01) delta temperature, amperage, motor load, and production efficiency. The addition of crude glycerol improved (P < 0.01) pellet durability compared with soy oil and the soy oil/crude glycerol blend treatments. Pigs fed increasing crude glycerol had increased (linear, P = 0.03) ADG. Average daily gain tended to increase with increasing soy oil (quadratic; P = 0.07) or the soy oil/crude glycerol blend (linear, P = 0.06). Adding crude glycerol to the diet did not affect G:F compared with the control. Gain:feed tended to increase with increasing soy oil (linear, P < 0.01; quadratic, P = 0.06) or the soy oil/crude glycerol blend (linear, P < 0.01; quadratic, P = 0.09). Nitrogen digestibility tended (P = 0.07) to decrease in pigs fed crude glycerol compared with pigs fed the soy oil treatments. Apparent digestibility of GE tended (P = 0.08) to be greater in the pigs fed soy oil compared with pigs fed the soy oil/crude glycerol blends. In conclusion, adding crude glycerol to the diet before pelleting increased pellet durability and improved feed mill production efficiency. The addition of 3 or 6% crude glycerol, soy oil, or a blend of soy oil and glycerol in diets for 11- to 27-kg pigs tended to increase ADG. For pigs fed crude glycerol, this was a result of increased ADFI, whereas, for pigs fed soy oil or the soy oil/crude glycerol, the response was a result of increased G:F.

The effect of steam-conditioning rate on the pelleting process☆

Abstract A poultry layer-diet was used in experiments to determine the effects of steam-conditioning level on pelleting variables. Dry pelleting was compared with steam conditioning (to 65 and 80° C) before pelleting, at both constant and maximum production rates. Samples were obtained before and after conditioning, and after pelleting. Electrical energy used by the pellet mill was measured with a watt-hour meter, and the amount of steam used for conditioning was calculated using steam tables. Temperature rise of the meal being extruded through the die and electrical energy required to pellet showed that steam decreased mechanical friction during pelleting. Pellet durability and percentage of fines from the scalper showed that steam improved pellet quality. Pressing the mash through the pellet die caused more starch damage during dry pelleting than during steam pelleting. Starch was not damaged during the steam-conditioning process. Total energy required for pelleting (electrical plus steam) was highest for the 80° C treatment. However, steam conditioning allows increased production rates and improved pellet durability during handling and transportation of finished feeds.

Effect of Feather Meal on Growth and Body Composition of the Juvenile Pacific White Shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei

Abstract A 35.8% crude protein shrimp diet containing 24.5% fish meal was modified by substituting either a regular feather meal or a high-digestibility feather meal for 33.3, 66.7, and 100% of fish meal on an equal weight basis. Additionally, synthetic amino acids were added to both types of feather meal diets so that their total lysine and methionine contents were the same as those of the fish meal-based control diet. After an 8-week growth assay, shrimp body weight ranged from 0.92 to 2.83 g, and survival was in the range from 58.3 to 76.4%. No body weight difference occurred between shrimp fed diets based on either type of feather meal (P= 0.178). However, a significant weight difference existed between shrimp fed both types of feather meals with amino acid supplementation and those without amino acid supplementation (P= 0.023). Shrimp fed 33.3% fish meal replacement diets grew faster than those with 66.7 or 100% fish meal replacement diets (P= 0.043 and P= 0.012, respectively). Supplementing amino acids to both feather meal diets reduced shrimp body moisture (P= 0.014) and contents of ash (P= 0.002) and increased crude fat (P= 0.007) but had no significant effect on crude protein content (P =0.062).

Effects of Poultry By-Product Meal as a Substitute for Fish Meal in Diets on Growth and Body Composition of Juvenile Pacific White Shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei

Abstract A 35.5% crude protein shrimp diet containing 24.5% fish meal was modified by replacing fish meal with two types of poultry by-product meals (regular poultry by-product meal [PBM] and low-ash petfood-grade poultry by-product meal [PBMPG]) at 33.3, 66.7, and 100% on an equal weight (w/w) basis. Additionally, the PBM and PBMPG were defatted, and fish oil was added back so that their oil contents were the same as the original. These modified meals also were used to replace fish meal at 33.3, 66.7, and 100% on w/w basis. Thirteen diets (including a fish meal control diet) were fed to 936 shrimp of average weight 0.17±0.05 g. After an 8-week growth period, final body weight of the shrimp ranged from 1.09 to 2.21 g, and survival ranged from 62.5 to 84.7%. No body weight differences were observed between shrimp fed diets based on PBM and PBMPG (P= 0.188) or between shrimp fed PBM with and without fish oil supplementation (P= 0.549). However, shrimp fed the 33.3 or 66.7% fish meal replacement diets grew faster than those fed the 100% fish meal replacement diet (P= 0.018 and P= 0.048, respectively). Results demonstrated that up to 66.7% fish meal could be replaced by PBM without affecting shrimp growth (P >0.05). Adding fish oil to defatted PBM diets did not affect shrimp body composition (P >0.05).

Effects of distillers grains on growth performance in nursery and finishing pigs

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Sorghum genotype and particle size affect growth performance, nutrient digestibility, and stomach morphology in finishing pigs

Seventy pigs (average initial body wt of 119 lb) were used to determine the effects of sorghum genotype on milling characteristics, growth performance, nutrient digestibility, and stomach morphology in finishing pigs. The pigs were fed a corn-soybean meal-based control diet, with the corn (Pioneer 3377) milled to a mean particle size of 600 Î1⁄4m. Hard-endosperm sorghum (Pioneer 8585) and soft-endosperm sorghum (Pioneer 894) were milled to mean particle sizes of 800, 600, and 400 Î1⁄4m and substituted for the corn in the control diet on a wt/wt basis, so that the overall treatment arrangement was a 2 × 3 factorial plus control. The sorghums required less energy to grind, had greater production rates, and produced less noise during milling than the corn. Pigs fed the diets with hard and soft endosperm sorghum had average daily gain, average daily feed intake, and feed/gain similar to those fed corn. Pigs fed hard sorghum grew faster, but pigs fed soft sorghum were more efficient. As particle size was decreased, energy required for grinding increased and production rate slowed. Efficiency of gain and nutrient digestibility were maximized and excretion of nutrients as feces was minimized at 400 Î1⁄4m for both hardand softendosperm sorghum. Considering the positive effects of fine grinding on efficiency of gain and nutrient digestibility, but the negative effects on energy required for milling, production rate and stomach morphology,an acceptable compromise for particle size of soft and hard sorghum in pelleted diets for finishing pigs will still likely be less than 600 Î1⁄4m.; Swine Day, Manhattan, KS, November 18,1993

Effect of Moisture Content, Processing Water Temperature, and Immersion Time on Water Stability of Pelleted Shrimp Diets

Abstract An experimental shrimp diet was processed at four moisture levels (34%, 37%, 40%, and 43%) and two water temperatures (26°C and 100°C) and formed into feed pellets by means of a meat grinder. Eight pellet samples were immersed in a seawater aquarium for 1, 2, and 4 hours to test the water stability index (WSI) of these pellets in a 2 3 3 3 4 factorial design. Results showed that mean WSI of pellets ranged from 73.8% to 94.5%. Pellets processed at 40% moisture with 100°C water, immersed in water for 1 hour, had the highest WSI. Pellets processed with 100°C water had significantly higher WSI than those processed with 26°C water (P< 0.05). Pellets processed at 34% moisture content had significantly lower WSI than those processed at 37%, 40%, and 43% moisture contents (P< 0.05). Pellets processed at 37% moisture level had a significantly lower WSI than those processed at 40% moisture level (P< 0.05) but were not significantly different than those processed at 43% moisture level (P> 0.05). Pellets immersed in water for 1 hour had a significantly higher WSI than those immersed in water for 2 hours and 4 hours (P< 0.05). Likewise, pellets immersed in water for 2 hours had a significantly higher WSI than those immersed in water for 4 hours (P< 0.05). Therefore, shrimp diets made with a meat grinder should be processed at 40% moisture with 100°C water.

Fate of Dwarf Bunt Fungus Teliospores During Milling of Wheat into Flour

ABSTRACT Wheat contaminated with teliospores of Tilletia controversa Kuhn (TCK) was mixed with uncontaminated wheat and processed through the Kansas State University pilot mill. Two 50-bu lots of the contaminated mixture were cleaned, tempered, and milled. Approximately 500 samples of wheat, cleanings, and mill fractions were collected and examined for the presence of intact and broken TCK teliospores. Whole wheat samples (50 g) were washed, sieved through a 60-μm nylon sieve, and pelleted by centrifugation. Contents of the pellet were examined microscopically for the presence of TCK spores. The procedure was modified as needed to accommodate cleanings and mill fractions. Levels of spore contamination in whole wheat samples decreased at each step during the handling process, and large numbers of spores were found in materials that were sieved or aspirated from the grain. Very few spores were found in bran, germ, and shorts; none were detected in red dog or straight-grade flour. The results showed that a h...

Effects of sorghum endosperm hardness and processing on growth performance and nutrient digestibility in pigs and broiler chicks.

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