Klaus Haberkern

State care provision, societal opinion and children's care of older parents in 11 European countries

ABSTRACT Dependent older people are predominantly cared for by family members, mostly partners and children, but not every parent in need is cared for by a child, and intergenerational care varies widely across Europe. Previous studies have used care regimes to explain these differences, but because of the lack of large comparative surveys, the prevalence of intergenerational care has rarely been related directly to the institutional and cultural context, including state care provision, legal obligations between family members, and societal opinion about the role of the state in elderly care. This paper reports an analysis of variations in intergenerational care among European countries and the reasons for these differences using data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe for Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Results from logistic multilevel models show that care by children is influenced by the individual characteristics of both parents and children, and by family structures, welfare-state institutions and cultural norms. Intergenerational care is more prevalent in southern and central European countries, where children are legally obligated to support parents in need, and care is perceived as a responsibility of the family, whereas in northern Europe, the wider availability of formal care services enable adult children, particularly daughters, have more choice about their activities and use of time.

Gendered support to older parents: do welfare states matter?

The aim of this study is to examine the association of welfare state policies and the gendered organisation of intergenerational support (instrumental help and personal care) to older parents. The study distinguishes between support to older parents provided at least weekly, i.e. time-intensive and often burdening support, and supplemental sporadic support. Three policy instruments were expected to be associated with daughters’ and sons’ support or gender inequality in intergenerational support respectively: (1) professional social services, (2) cash-for-care payments and (3) legal obligations to provide or co-finance care for parents. The analyses based on the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe showed that daughters provided somewhat more sporadic and much more intensive support than sons throughout Europe. While about half of all children who sporadically supported a parent were men, this applied to only one out of four children who provided intensive support. Logistic multilevel models revealed that legal obligations were positively associated with daughters’ likelihood of giving intensive support to parents but did not affect the likelihood of sons doing so. Legal obligations thus stimulate support in a gender-specific way. Both legal obligations and cash-for-care schemes were also accompanied by a more unequal distribution of involvement in intensive support at the expense of women. Social services, in contrast, were linked to a lower involvement of daughters in intensive support. In sum, the results suggest that welfare states can both preserve or reduce gender inequality in intergenerational support depending on specific arrangements.

Gender differences in intergenerational care in European welfare states

ABSTRACT Elderly people with functional limitations are predominantly cared for by family members. Women – spouses and daughters – provide most of this care work. In principle, gender inequality in intergenerational care may have three causes: first, daughters and sons have different resources to provide care; second, daughters and sons respond differently to the same resources; third, welfare state programmes and cultural norms affect daughters and sons differently. In this paper, we address the empirical question whether these three assumed causes are in fact responsible for gender differences in intergenerational care. The empirical analyses, based on the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), reveal that parents in need are in fact more likely to receive care from daughters than from sons. Daughters are more responsive to the needs of their parents than sons and respond differently to the same resources. Gender inequality is highest in countries with a high level of intergenerational care, high public spending on old-age cash-benefits, a low provision of professional care services, high family obligation norms and a high level of gendered division of labour. Welfare state programmes reduce or increase gender inequality in intergenerational care by reducing or increasing the engagement of daughters in intergenerational care. In general, care-giving by sons is hardly influenced by social care policies.

Reziprozität zwischen erwachsenen Generationen

ZusammenfassungGenerationenbeziehungen zeichnen sich durch Solidarität und wechselseitige Unterstützung aus. Einerseits helfen und pflegen Kinder ihre betagten Eltern, andererseits unterstützen diese ihre erwachsenen Kinder, z.B. während der Ausbildung oder bei der Familiengründung. In diesem Beitrag greifen wir aus einer Lebenslaufperspektive folgende Fragen auf: Ist der Austausch zwischen Eltern und ihren Kindern in Europa über die verschiedenen Lebens- und Familienphasen ausbalanciert? Lassen sich Muster direkter oder indirekter Reziprozität finden? Welche Faktoren begünstigen die Unterstützung zwischen den Generationen, und welche stehen ihr im Weg? Anhand von multinomialen Mehrebenenanalysen auf Basis des Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) können zeitliche und finanzielle Transfers zwischen Eltern und erwachsenen Kindern auf Bedürfnis-, Opportunitäts- und Familienstrukturen zurückgeführt werden. Gleichzeitig bestehen deutliche Unterschiede zwischen den Ländern, die durch kulturell-kontextuelle Strukturen, hier: familienpolitische Leistungen, erklärt werden können. Außerdem zeigen die Befunde, dass der Austausch szwischen den Generationen über den Lebenslauf hinweg reziproken Charakter aufweist, auch wenn die gegenseitige Unterstützung in einzelnen Lebensabschnitten nicht immer ausbalanciert ist.AbstractIntergenerational relations are characterised by reciprocal transfers and solidarity over the shared life span. Children care for their elderly parents, and parents support their adult children financially, for example, during their education or when they start their own household and family. From a life course-perspective, we analysed mutual transfers between parents and their adult children: Are transfers balanced over the life course and family-stages? Do we find patterns of direct or indirect reciprocity? Which factors facilitate exchange, and which do not? Using multinomial multilevel regression analyses based on the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) we trace transfers of time and money between parents and adult children back to opportunity, need and family structures. Remaining differences between European countries are explained by cultural contextual structures, here: family expenditures. The exchange between generations is reciprocal, but not necessarily balanced in various phases of family life.Intergenerational relations are characterised by reciprocal transfers and solidarity over the shared life span. Children care for their elderly parents, and parents support their adult children financially, for example, during their education or when they start their own household and family. From a life course-perspective, we analysed mutual transfers between parents and their adult children: Are transfers balanced over the life course and family-stages? Do we find patterns of direct or indirect reciprocity? Which factors facilitate exchange, and which do not? Using multinomial multilevel regression analyses based on the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) we trace transfers of time and money between parents and adult children back to opportunity, need and family structures. Remaining differences between European countries are explained by cultural contextual structures, here: family expenditures. The exchange between generations is reciprocal, but not necessarily balanced in various phases of family life.

Geben und Nehmen zwischen Generationen: Der Austausch von Geld und Zeit in Europa

Die Beziehung zwischen Eltern und Kindern ist gepragt von Geben und Nehmen. Dabei endet dieser Austausch von Leistungen langst nicht mit dem Auszug des Kindes aus dem Elternhaus. Eltern unterstutzen hierbei ihre erwachsenen Kinder nicht nur mit finanziellen Mitteln, sondern helfen auch bei der Betreuung und Erziehung der Enkelkinder und leisten umfassende Hilfen im Haushalt. Transfers an Kinder gehen sogar in Form von Erbschaften uber den Tod hinaus. Umgekehrt erhalten Eltern von ihren Kindern vor allem im hoheren Alter Hilfen, wenn sie mehr und mehr auf Unterstutzung und Pflege angewiesen sind (z.B. Bertram 2000; Brandt & Szydlik 2008; Haberkern & Szydlik 2008; Hopflinger et al. 2006; Rossi & Rossi 1990; Szydlik 2000).

Erratum to: Gendered support to older parents: do welfare states matter?

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1007/s10433-011-0197-1.].

Pflege durch Kinder

Die Solidaritat zwischen Kindern und Eltern ist ausgesprochen hoch. Sie zeigt sich in den uber die gesamte Lebensspanne vielfaltigen Unterstutzungsleistungen zwischen den Generationen (Brandt et al. 2008). Erwachsene Kinder erhalten dabei meist finanzielle Zuwendungen oder werden bei der Betreuung der eigenen Kinder von den Eltern unterstutzt (Attias-Donfut et al. 2005; Rossi und Rossi 1990; Szydlik 2000, 2004). In den meisten hier untersuchten Landern konnten die heute uber 50jahrigen in der Erwerbsphase Vermogenswerte bilden. Viele verfugen auch uber eine ausreichende Rente. Diese Rucklagen und Einkommen ermoglichen es ihnen, den Kindern bei finanziellen Engpassen auszuhelfen, z.B. bei der Familien- oder Betriebsgrundung sowie bei einer marginalen Beschaftigung oder Arbeitslosigkeit.

[Reciprocity between adult generations: family transfers over the life course].

ZusammenfassungGenerationenbeziehungen zeichnen sich durch Solidarität und wechselseitige Unterstützung aus. Einerseits helfen und pflegen Kinder ihre betagten Eltern, andererseits unterstützen diese ihre erwachsenen Kinder, z.B. während der Ausbildung oder bei der Familiengründung. In diesem Beitrag greifen wir aus einer Lebenslaufperspektive folgende Fragen auf: Ist der Austausch zwischen Eltern und ihren Kindern in Europa über die verschiedenen Lebens- und Familienphasen ausbalanciert? Lassen sich Muster direkter oder indirekter Reziprozität finden? Welche Faktoren begünstigen die Unterstützung zwischen den Generationen, und welche stehen ihr im Weg? Anhand von multinomialen Mehrebenenanalysen auf Basis des Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) können zeitliche und finanzielle Transfers zwischen Eltern und erwachsenen Kindern auf Bedürfnis-, Opportunitäts- und Familienstrukturen zurückgeführt werden. Gleichzeitig bestehen deutliche Unterschiede zwischen den Ländern, die durch kulturell-kontextuelle Strukturen, hier: familienpolitische Leistungen, erklärt werden können. Außerdem zeigen die Befunde, dass der Austausch szwischen den Generationen über den Lebenslauf hinweg reziproken Charakter aufweist, auch wenn die gegenseitige Unterstützung in einzelnen Lebensabschnitten nicht immer ausbalanciert ist.AbstractIntergenerational relations are characterised by reciprocal transfers and solidarity over the shared life span. Children care for their elderly parents, and parents support their adult children financially, for example, during their education or when they start their own household and family. From a life course-perspective, we analysed mutual transfers between parents and their adult children: Are transfers balanced over the life course and family-stages? Do we find patterns of direct or indirect reciprocity? Which factors facilitate exchange, and which do not? Using multinomial multilevel regression analyses based on the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) we trace transfers of time and money between parents and adult children back to opportunity, need and family structures. Remaining differences between European countries are explained by cultural contextual structures, here: family expenditures. The exchange between generations is reciprocal, but not necessarily balanced in various phases of family life.Intergenerational relations are characterised by reciprocal transfers and solidarity over the shared life span. Children care for their elderly parents, and parents support their adult children financially, for example, during their education or when they start their own household and family. From a life course-perspective, we analysed mutual transfers between parents and their adult children: Are transfers balanced over the life course and family-stages? Do we find patterns of direct or indirect reciprocity? Which factors facilitate exchange, and which do not? Using multinomial multilevel regression analyses based on the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) we trace transfers of time and money between parents and adult children back to opportunity, need and family structures. Remaining differences between European countries are explained by cultural contextual structures, here: family expenditures. The exchange between generations is reciprocal, but not necessarily balanced in various phases of family life.

Reziprozität zwischen erwachsenen Generationen:@@@Reciprocity between adult generations:: Familiale Transfers im Lebenslauf@@@Family transfers over the life course

ZusammenfassungGenerationenbeziehungen zeichnen sich durch Solidarität und wechselseitige Unterstützung aus. Einerseits helfen und pflegen Kinder ihre betagten Eltern, andererseits unterstützen diese ihre erwachsenen Kinder, z.B. während der Ausbildung oder bei der Familiengründung. In diesem Beitrag greifen wir aus einer Lebenslaufperspektive folgende Fragen auf: Ist der Austausch zwischen Eltern und ihren Kindern in Europa über die verschiedenen Lebens- und Familienphasen ausbalanciert? Lassen sich Muster direkter oder indirekter Reziprozität finden? Welche Faktoren begünstigen die Unterstützung zwischen den Generationen, und welche stehen ihr im Weg? Anhand von multinomialen Mehrebenenanalysen auf Basis des Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) können zeitliche und finanzielle Transfers zwischen Eltern und erwachsenen Kindern auf Bedürfnis-, Opportunitäts- und Familienstrukturen zurückgeführt werden. Gleichzeitig bestehen deutliche Unterschiede zwischen den Ländern, die durch kulturell-kontextuelle Strukturen, hier: familienpolitische Leistungen, erklärt werden können. Außerdem zeigen die Befunde, dass der Austausch szwischen den Generationen über den Lebenslauf hinweg reziproken Charakter aufweist, auch wenn die gegenseitige Unterstützung in einzelnen Lebensabschnitten nicht immer ausbalanciert ist.AbstractIntergenerational relations are characterised by reciprocal transfers and solidarity over the shared life span. Children care for their elderly parents, and parents support their adult children financially, for example, during their education or when they start their own household and family. From a life course-perspective, we analysed mutual transfers between parents and their adult children: Are transfers balanced over the life course and family-stages? Do we find patterns of direct or indirect reciprocity? Which factors facilitate exchange, and which do not? Using multinomial multilevel regression analyses based on the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) we trace transfers of time and money between parents and adult children back to opportunity, need and family structures. Remaining differences between European countries are explained by cultural contextual structures, here: family expenditures. The exchange between generations is reciprocal, but not necessarily balanced in various phases of family life.Intergenerational relations are characterised by reciprocal transfers and solidarity over the shared life span. Children care for their elderly parents, and parents support their adult children financially, for example, during their education or when they start their own household and family. From a life course-perspective, we analysed mutual transfers between parents and their adult children: Are transfers balanced over the life course and family-stages? Do we find patterns of direct or indirect reciprocity? Which factors facilitate exchange, and which do not? Using multinomial multilevel regression analyses based on the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) we trace transfers of time and money between parents and adult children back to opportunity, need and family structures. Remaining differences between European countries are explained by cultural contextual structures, here: family expenditures. The exchange between generations is reciprocal, but not necessarily balanced in various phases of family life.