Kristina D. Micheva

The Classical Complement Cascade Mediates CNS Synapse Elimination

During development, the formation of mature neural circuits requires the selective elimination of inappropriate synaptic connections. Here we show that C1q, the initiating protein in the classical complement cascade, is expressed by postnatal neurons in response to immature astrocytes and is localized to synapses throughout the postnatal CNS and retina. Mice deficient in complement protein C1q or the downstream complement protein C3 exhibit large sustained defects in CNS synapse elimination, as shown by the failure of anatomical refinement of retinogeniculate connections and the retention of excess retinal innervation by lateral geniculate neurons. Neuronal C1q is normally downregulated in the adult CNS; however, in a mouse model of glaucoma, C1q becomes upregulated and synaptically relocalized in the adult retina early in the disease. These findings support a model in which unwanted synapses are tagged by complement for elimination and suggest that complement-mediated synapse elimination may become aberrantly reactivated in neurodegenerative disease.

Array tomography: A new tool for imaging the molecular architecture and ultrastructure of neural circuits

SUMMARY Many biological functions depend critically upon fine details of tissue molecular architecture that have resisted exploration by existing imaging techniques. This is particularly true for nervous system tissues, where information processingfunctiondependsonintricatecircuit and synaptic architectures. Here, we describe a new imaging method, called array tomography, which combines and extends superlative features of modern optical fluorescence and electron microscopy methods. Based on methods for constructing and repeatedly staining and imaging ordered arrays of ultrathin (50‐200 nm), resin-embedded serial sections on glass microscope slides, array tomography allows for quantitative, high-resolution, largefield volumetric imaging of large numbers of antigens, fluorescent proteins, and ultrastructure in individual tissue specimens. Compared to confocal microscopy, array tomography offers the advantage of better spatial resolution, in particular along the z axis, as well as depthindependent immunofluorescent staining. The application of array tomography can reveal important but previously unseen features of brain molecular architecture.

Oligomeric amyloid β associates with postsynaptic densities and correlates with excitatory synapse loss near senile plaques

Synapse loss correlates with a cognitive decline in Alzheimers disease (AD), but whether this is caused by fibrillar deposits known as senile plaques or soluble oligomeric forms of amyloid β (Aβ) is controversial. By using array tomography, a technique that combines ultrathin sectioning of tissue with immunofluorescence, allowing precise quantification of small structures, such as synapses, we have tested the hypothesis that oligomeric Aβ surrounding plaques contributes to synapse loss in a mouse model of AD. We find that senile plaques are surrounded by a halo of oligomeric Aβ. Analysis of >14,000 synapses (represented by PSD95-stained excitatory synapses) shows that there is a 60% loss of excitatory synapses in the halo of oligomeric Aβ surrounding plaques and that the density increases to reach almost control levels in volumes further than 50 μm from a plaque in an approximately linear fashion (linear regression, r2 = 0.9; P < 0.0001). Further, in transgenic cortex, microdeposits of oligomeric Aβ associate with a subset of excitatory synapses, which are significantly smaller than those not in contact with oligomeric Aβ. The proportion of excitatory synapses associated with Aβ correlates with decreasing density (correlation, −0.588; P < 0.0001). These data show that senile plaques are a potential reservoir of oligomeric Aβ, which colocalizes with the postsynaptic density and is associated with spine collapse, reconciling the apparently competing schools of thought of “plaque” vs. “oligomeric Aβ” as the synaptotoxic species in the brain of AD patients.

Classical MHCI Molecules Regulate Retinogeniculate Refinement and Limit Ocular Dominance Plasticity

Major histocompatibility complex class I (MHCI) genes were discovered unexpectedly in healthy CNS neurons in a screen for genes regulated by neural activity. In mice lacking just 2 of the 50+ MHCI genes H2-K(b) and H2-D(b), ocular dominance (OD) plasticity is enhanced. Mice lacking PirB, an MHCI receptor, have a similar phenotype. H2-K(b) and H2-D(b) are expressed not only in visual cortex, but also in lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), where protein localization correlates strongly with synaptic markers and complement protein C1q. In K(b)D(b-/-) mice, developmental refinement of retinogeniculate projections is impaired, similar to C1q(-/-) mice. These phenotypes in K(b)D(b-/-) mice are strikingly similar to those in beta2 m(-/-)TAP1(-/-) mice, which lack cell surface expression of all MHCIs, implying that H2-K(b) and H2-D(b) can account for observed changes in synapse plasticity. H2-K(b) and H2-D(b) ligands, signaling via neuronal MHCI receptors, may enable activity-dependent remodeling of brain circuits during developmental critical periods.

Retrograde regulation of synaptic vesicle endocytosis and recycling

Sustained release of neurotransmitter depends upon the recycling of synaptic vesicles. Until now, it has been assumed that vesicle recycling is regulated by signals from the presynaptic bouton alone, but results from rat hippocampal neurons reported here indicate that this need not be the case. Fluorescence imaging and pharmacological analysis show that a nitric oxide (NO) signal generated postsynaptically can regulate endocytosis and at least one later step in synaptic vesicle recycling. The proposed retrograde pathway involves an NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-dependent postsynaptic production of NO, diffusion of NO to a presynaptic site, and a cGMP-dependent increase in presynaptic phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate (PIP2). These results indicate that the regulation of synaptic vesicle recycling may integrate a much broader range of neural activity signals than previously recognized, including postsynaptic depolarization and the activation of NMDARs at both immediate and nearby postsynaptic active zones.

Deep molecular diversity of mammalian synapses: why it matters and how to measure it

Pioneering studies in the middle of the twentieth century revealed substantial diversity among mammalian chemical synapses and led to a widely accepted classification of synapse type on the basis of neurotransmitter molecule identity. Subsequently, powerful new physiological, genetic and structural methods have enabled the discovery of much deeper functional and molecular diversity within each traditional neurotransmitter type. Today, this deep diversity continues to pose both daunting challenges and exciting new opportunities for neuroscience. Our growing understanding of deep synapse diversity may transform how we think about and study neural circuit development, structure and function.

Large-Scale Automated Histology in the Pursuit of Connectomes

How does the brain compute? Answering this question necessitates neuronal connectomes, annotated graphs of all synaptic connections within defined brain areas. Further, understanding the energetics of the brains computations requires vascular graphs. The assembly of a connectome requires sensitive hardware tools to measure neuronal and neurovascular features in all three dimensions, as well as software and machine learning for data analysis and visualization. We present the state of the art on the reconstruction of circuits and vasculature that link brain anatomy and function. Analysis at the scale of tens of nanometers yields connections between identified neurons, while analysis at the micrometer scale yields probabilistic rules of connection between neurons and exact vascular connectivity.

Pregabalin Reduces the Release of Synaptic Vesicles from Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

Pregabalin [S-[+]-3-isobutylGABA or (S)-3-(aminomethyl)-5-methylhexanoic acid, Lyrica] is an anticonvulsant and analgesic medication that is both structurally and pharmacologically related to gabapentin (Neurontin; Pfizer Inc., New York, NY). Previous studies have shown that pregabalin reduces the release of neurotransmitters in several in vitro preparations, although the molecular details of these effects are less clear. The present study was performed using living cultured rat hippocampal neurons with the synaptic vesicle fluorescent dye probe FM4-64 to determine details of the action of pregabalin to reduce neurotransmitter release. Our results indicate that pregabalin treatment, at concentrations that are therapeutically relevant, slightly but significantly reduces the emptying of neurotransmitter vesicles from presynaptic sites in living neurons. Dye release is reduced in both glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)-immunoreactive and GAD-negative (presumed glutamatergic) synaptic terminals. Furthermore, both calcium-dependent release and hyperosmotic (calcium-independent) dye release are reduced by pregabalin. The effects of pregabalin on dye release are masked in the presence of l-isoleucine, consistent with the fact that both of these compounds have a high binding affinity to the calcium channel α2-δ protein. The effect of pregabalin is not apparent in the presence of an N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist [D(-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid], suggesting that pregabalin action depends on NMDA receptor activation. Finally, the action of pregabalin on dye release is most apparent before and early during a train of electrical stimuli when vesicle release preferentially involves the readily releasable pool.

Strong Effects of Subphysiological Temperature on the Function and Plasticity of Mammalian Presynaptic Terminals

Most cellular processes are known to be strongly temperature dependent. Nevertheless, a large fraction of studies of mammalian synaptic function have been and are performed near room temperature (i.e., at least 10°C below physiological temperature). Here, we examined the effects of temperature on presynaptic function in primary cultures of rat hippocampal neurons. FM dyes, VAMP (vesicle-associated membrane protein)-GFP (green fluorescent protein) transfection, and HRP uptake were used to quantify various aspects of synaptic vesicle recycling. Our results show that there are very substantial differences in synaptic vesicle recycling at physiological temperature as opposed to the common, lower experimental temperatures. At 37°C, compared with 23°C, the speed of both exocytosis and endocytosis was higher. The size of the recycling vesicle pool (in both number of vesicles and spatial extent) was twofold larger at 37°C. In addition, although repeated 10 Hz electrical stimulation caused an NMDA receptor-dependent enlargement (averaging 170%) of the measurable recycling vesicle pool at 23°C, the same stimulus repetition had no effect at 37°C. These results show that it is potentially misleading to extend conclusions drawn about vesicle function or presynaptic plasticity at lowered experimental temperature to physiological conditions and that much new experimental work at the higher physiological temperature range will be needed to understand the true parameters of presynaptic functions.

Visualizing the Distribution of Synapses from Individual Neurons in the Mouse Brain

Background Proper function of the mammalian brain relies on the establishment of highly specific synaptic connections among billions of neurons. To understand how complex neural circuits function, it is crucial to precisely describe neuronal connectivity and the distributions of synapses to and from individual neurons. Methods and Findings In this study, we present a new genetic synaptic labeling method that relies on expression of a presynaptic marker, synaptophysin-GFP (Syp-GFP) in individual neurons in vivo. We assess the reliability of this method and use it to analyze the spatial patterning of synapses in developing and mature cerebellar granule cells (GCs). In immature GCs, Syp-GFP is distributed in both axonal and dendritic regions. Upon maturation, it becomes strongly enriched in axons. In mature GCs, we analyzed synapses along their ascending segments and parallel fibers. We observe no differences in presynaptic distribution between GCs born at different developmental time points and thus having varied depths of projections in the molecular layer. We found that the mean densities of synapses along the parallel fiber and the ascending segment above the Purkinje cell (PC) layer are statistically indistinguishable, and higher than previous estimates. Interestingly, presynaptic terminals were also found in the ascending segments of GCs below and within the PC layer, with the mean densities two-fold lower than that above the PC layer. The difference in the density of synapses in these parts of the ascending segment likely reflects the regional differences in postsynaptic target cells of GCs. Conclusions The ability to visualize synapses of single neurons in vivo is valuable for studying synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity within individual neurons as well as information flow in neural circuits.