Nancy A. O'Rourke

Gabapentin Receptor α2δ-1 Is a Neuronal Thrombospondin Receptor Responsible for Excitatory CNS Synaptogenesis

Synapses are asymmetric cellular adhesions that are critical for nervous system development and function, but the mechanisms that induce their formation are not well understood. We have previously identified thrombospondin as an astrocyte-secreted protein that promotes central nervous system (CNS) synaptogenesis. Here, we identify the neuronal thrombospondin receptor involved in CNS synapse formation as alpha2delta-1, the receptor for the anti-epileptic and analgesic drug gabapentin. We show that the VWF-A domain of alpha2delta-1 interacts with the epidermal growth factor-like repeats common to all thrombospondins. alpha2delta-1 overexpression increases synaptogenesis in vitro and in vivo and is required postsynaptically for thrombospondin- and astrocyte-induced synapse formation in vitro. Gabapentin antagonizes thrombospondin binding to alpha2delta-1 and powerfully inhibits excitatory synapse formation in vitro and in vivo. These findings identify alpha2delta-1 as a receptor involved in excitatory synapse formation and suggest that gabapentin may function therapeutically by blocking new synapse formation.

Functional cortical neurons and astrocytes from human pluripotent stem cells in 3D culture

The human cerebral cortex develops through an elaborate succession of cellular events that, when disrupted, can lead to neuropsychiatric disease. The ability to reprogram somatic cells into pluripotent cells that can be differentiated in vitro provides a unique opportunity to study normal and abnormal corticogenesis. Here, we present a simple and reproducible 3D culture approach for generating a laminated cerebral cortex–like structure, named human cortical spheroids (hCSs), from pluripotent stem cells. hCSs contain neurons from both deep and superficial cortical layers and map transcriptionally to in vivo fetal development. These neurons are electrophysiologically mature, display spontaneous activity, are surrounded by nonreactive astrocytes and form functional synapses. Experiments in acute hCS slices demonstrate that cortical neurons participate in network activity and produce complex synaptic events. These 3D cultures should allow a detailed interrogation of human cortical development, function and disease, and may prove a versatile platform for generating other neuronal and glial subtypes in vitro.

Dynamic changes in optic fiber terminal arbors lead to retinotopic map formation: An in vivo confocal microscopic study

Dynamic remodeling of retinal ganglion cell terminal arbors has been proposed to contribute to formation of the topographically ordered retinotectal projection. To test this directly, the growth of individual terminal arbors was observed in live X. laevis tadpoles using a confocal microscope to visualize their complex three-dimensional structure. During initial development, nasal and temporal retinal arbors covered overlapping tectal areas. Despite subsequent remodeling, the dimensions and positions of the temporal arbors remained relatively stable. In contrast, the nasal arbors grew caudally, as they extended caudal branches and retracted rostral branches. These results suggest that differences in the remodeling of the nasal and temporal arbors lead to the emergence of retino-topography along the rostrocaudal axis of the tectum. All the terminal arbors were dynamic, including those with stable dimensions, suggesting that continual remodeling of arbors may be a universal feature of neuronal projections.

Rapid Remodeling of Retinal Arbors in the Tectum with and without Blockade of Synaptic Transmission

Dynamic rearrangements of axon terminal arbors may be critical for establishing appropriate connections in the developing nervous system. Here, the changes in complex retinal axon arbors in the tecta of live Xenopus larvae were followed during the formation of the topographic retinotectal projection. Three-dimensional reconstructions of terminal arbors made with a confocal microscope at hourly intervals revealed rapid remodeling of arbor extensions. Shorter branches were extended and retracted very rapidly, suggesting that they probe the environment for the optimal sites to form stable branches. About 27% of longer branches were present throughout the entire observation period and may be sites of stabilized synaptic contacts. Treatment of the animals to block postsynaptic activity resulted in increased rates of arbor rearrangements, which may coincide with decreased synapse stability. These studies reveal the dynamic behavior of nerve arbors and provide estimates for the lifetimes of retinotectal branches.

Deep molecular diversity of mammalian synapses: why it matters and how to measure it

Pioneering studies in the middle of the twentieth century revealed substantial diversity among mammalian chemical synapses and led to a widely accepted classification of synapse type on the basis of neurotransmitter molecule identity. Subsequently, powerful new physiological, genetic and structural methods have enabled the discovery of much deeper functional and molecular diversity within each traditional neurotransmitter type. Today, this deep diversity continues to pose both daunting challenges and exciting new opportunities for neuroscience. Our growing understanding of deep synapse diversity may transform how we think about and study neural circuit development, structure and function.

Dynamic aspects of retinotectal map formation revealed by a vital-dye fiber-tracing technique.

In the visual system of Xenopus laevis, the axons from the retinal ganglion cells of the eye form a topographic projection onto the optic tectum. Many studies have focused on revealing the mechanisms responsible for this precise and regular projection pattern. In contrast to the static view of the system that one might expect from examining the regularity of the projection, recent work on its regeneration and its changes during larval development indicate that part of the patterning process involves the dynamic behavior of optic fibers. Typically, anatomical and electrophysiological techniques have been used to obtain static views of the developing retinotectal projection which then must be complied to provide a glimpse of any dynamic behavior. Here we report on experiments using a newly developed fiber tracing technique to directly follow the emergence of topography in the developing retinotectal projection. Defined halves of the developing eyebud were labeled with a vital fluorescent dye which fills the growing axons, and the projection of the labeled cells was followed for up to 2 weeks in individual animals. The experiments confirm that dorsal and ventral optic nerve fibers sort out into an ordered projection early in development. In contrast, nasal and temporal fibers initially overlap, and the same sets of prelabeled fibers then sort out into the adult topography over a period of days.

Array Tomography: High-Resolution Three-Dimensional Immunofluorescence

Array tomography, which is described in this article, is a volumetric microscopy method based on physical serial sectioning. Ultrathin sections of a plastic-embedded tissue are cut using an ultramicrotome, bonded in an ordered array to a glass coverslip, stained as desired, and imaged. The resulting two-dimensional image tiles can then be reconstructed computationally into three-dimensional volume images for visualization and quantitative analysis. The minimal thickness of individual sections permits high-quality rapid staining and imaging, whereas the array format allows reliable and convenient section handling, staining, and automated imaging. Also, the physical stability of the arrays permits images to be acquired and registered from repeated cycles of staining, imaging, and stain elution, as well as from imaging using multiple modalities (e.g., fluorescence and electron microscopy). Although the fabrication procedures can be relatively difficult, the high resolution, depth invariance, and molecular discrimination offered by array tomography justify the effort involved. Array tomography makes it possible to visualize and quantify previously inaccessible features of tissue structure and molecular architecture.

Array Tomography: Semiautomated Image Alignment

Array tomography is a volumetric microscopy method based on physical serial sectioning. Ultrathin sections of a plastic-embedded tissue are cut using an ultramicrotome, bonded in an ordered array to a glass coverslip, stained as desired, and imaged. The resulting two-dimensional image tiles can then be reconstructed computationally into three-dimensional volume images for visualization and quantitative analysis. The minimal thickness of individual sections permits high-quality rapid staining and imaging, whereas the array format allows reliable and convenient section handling, staining, and automated imaging. Also, the physical stability of the arrays permits images to be acquired and registered from repeated cycles of staining, imaging, and stain elution, as well as from imaging using multiple modalities (e.g., fluorescence and electron microscopy). Array tomography makes it possible to visualize and quantify previously inaccessible features of tissue structure and molecular architecture. However, careful preparation of the tissue is essential for successful array tomography; these steps can be time-consuming and require some practice to perfect. Successful array tomography requires that the captured images be properly stacked and aligned, and the software to achieve these ends is freely available. This protocol describes the construction of volumetric image stacks from images of fluorescently labeled arrays for three-dimensional image visualization, analysis, and archiving.

Array Tomography: Production of Arrays

Array tomography is a volumetric microscopy method based on physical serial sectioning. Ultrathin sections of a plastic-embedded tissue are cut using an ultramicrotome, bonded in an ordered array to a glass coverslip, stained as desired, and imaged. The resulting two-dimensional image tiles can then be reconstructed computationally into three-dimensional volume images for visualization and quantitative analysis. The minimal thickness of individual sections permits high-quality rapid staining and imaging, whereas the array format allows reliable and convenient section handling, staining, and automated imaging. Also, the physical stability of the arrays permits images to be acquired and registered from repeated cycles of staining, imaging, and stain elution, as well as from imaging using multiple modalities (e.g., fluorescence and electron microscopy). Array tomography makes it possible to visualize and quantify previously inaccessible features of tissue structure and molecular architecture. However, careful preparation of the tissue is essential for successful array tomography; these steps can be time consuming and require some practice to perfect. This protocol describes the sectioning of embedded tissues and the mounting of the serial arrays. The procedures require some familiarity with the techniques used for ultramicrotome sectioning for electron microscopy.

Array tomography: immunostaining and antibody elution.

Array tomography is a volumetric microscopy method based on physical serial sectioning. Ultrathin sections of a plastic-embedded tissue are cut using an ultramicrotome, bonded in an ordered array to a glass coverslip, stained as desired, and imaged. The resulting two-dimensional image tiles can then be reconstructed computationally into three-dimensional volume images for visualization and quantitative analysis. The minimal thickness of individual sections permits high-quality rapid staining and imaging, whereas the array format allows reliable and convenient section handling, staining, and automated imaging. Also, the physical stability of the arrays permits images to be acquired and registered from repeated cycles of staining, imaging, and stain elution, as well as from imaging using multiple modalities (e.g., fluorescence and electron microscopy). Array tomography makes it possible to visualize and quantify previously inaccessible features of tissue structure and molecular architecture. However, careful preparation of the tissue is essential for successful array tomography; these steps can be time-consuming and require some practice to perfect. In this protocol, tissue arrays are prepared for imaging by tagging with primary antibodies against specific cellular targets, followed by labeling with fluorescent secondary antibodies. Alternatively, fluorescent proteins that have been introduced into the tissue before dissection can be used.