Kumiko Makide

TGFα shedding assay: an accurate and versatile method for detecting GPCR activation

A single-format method to detect multiple G protein–coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling, especially Gα12/13 signaling, presently has limited throughput and sensitivity. Here we report a transforming growth factor-α (TGFα) shedding assay, in which GPCR activation is measured as ectodomain shedding of a membrane-bound proform of alkaline phosphatase–tagged TGFα (AP-TGFα) and its release into conditioned medium. AP-TGFα shedding response occurred almost exclusively downstream of Gα12/13 and Gαq signaling. Relying on chimeric Gα proteins and promiscuous Gα16 protein, which can couple with Gαs- and Gαi-coupled GPCRs and induce Gαq signaling, we used the TGFα shedding assay to detect 104 GPCRs among 116 human GPCRs. We identified three orphan GPCRs (P2Y10, A630033H20 and GPR174) as Gα12/13-coupled lysophosphatidylserine receptors. Thus, the TGFα shedding assay is useful for studies of poorly characterized Gα12/13-coupled GPCRs and is a versatile platform for detecting GPCR activation including searching for ligands of orphan GPCRs.

Emerging lysophospholipid mediators, lysophosphatidylserine, lysophosphatidylthreonine, lysophosphatidylethanolamine and lysophosphatidylglycerol.

It is now widely accepted that lysophospholipids (LPLs), a product of the phospholipase A reaction, function as mediators through G-protein-coupled receptors. Notably, recent studies of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) have revealed their essential roles in vivo. On the other hand, other LPLs such as lysophosphatidylserine (LPS), lysophosphatidylthreonine (LPT), lysophosphatidylethanolamine (LPE), lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI) and lysophosphatidylglycerol (LPG) have been reported to show lipid mediator-like responses both in vivo (LPS and LPT) and in vitro (LPS, LPT, LPE and LPG), while very little is known about their receptor, synthetic enzyme and patho-physiological roles. In this review, we summarize the actions of these LPLs as lipid mediators including LPS, LPT, LPE and LPG.

Separation and quantification of 2-acyl-1-lysophospholipids and 1-acyl-2-lysophospholipids in biological samples by LC-MS/MS.

Lysophospholipids (LysoGPs) serve as lipid mediators and precursors for synthesis of diacyl phospholipids (GPs). LysoGPs detected in cells have various acyl chains attached at either the sn-1 or sn-2 position of the glycerol backbone. In general, acyl chains at the sn-2 position of 2-acyl-1-LysoGPs readily move to the sn-1 position, generating 1-acyl-2-lyso isomers by a nonenzymatic reaction called intra-molecular acyl migration, which has hampered the detection of 2-acyl-1-LysoGPs in biological samples. In this study, we developed a simple and versatile method to separate and quantify 2-acyl-1- and 1-acyl-2-LysoGPs. The main point of the method was to extract LysoGPs at pH 4 and 4°C, conditions that were found to completely eliminate the intra-molecular acyl migration. Under the present conditions, the relative amounts of 2-acyl-1-LysoGPs and 1-acyl-2-LysoGPs did not change at least for 1 week. Further, in LysoGPs extracted from cells and tissues under the present conditions, most of the saturated fatty acids (16:0 and 18:0) were found in the sn-1 position of LysoGPs, while most of the PUFAs (18:2, 20:4, 22:6) were found in the sn-2 position. Thus the method can be used to elucidate the in vivo role of 2-acyl-1-LysoGPs.

Novel lysophosphoplipid receptors: their structure and function

It is now accepted that lysophospholipids (LysoGPs) have a wide variety of functions as lipid mediators that are exerted through G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) specific to each lysophospholipid. While the roles of some LysoGPs, such as lysophosphatidic acid and sphingosine 1-phosphate, have been thoroughly examined, little is known about the roles of several other LysoGPs, such as lysophosphatidylserine (LysoPS), lysophosphatidylthreonine, lysophosphatidylethanolamine, lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI), and lysophosphatidylglycerol. Recently, a GPCR was found for LPI (GPR55) and three GPCRs (GPR34/LPS1, P2Y10/LPS2, and GPR174/LPS3) were found for LysoPS. In this review, we focus on these newly identified GPCRs and summarize the actions of LysoPS and LPI as lipid mediators.

Synthesis and Evaluation of Lysophosphatidylserine Analogues as Inducers of Mast Cell Degranulation. Potent Activities of Lysophosphatidylthreonine and Its 2-Deoxy Derivative

In response to various exogenous stimuli, mast cells (MCs) release a wide variety of inflammatory mediators stored in their cytoplasmic granules and this release initiates subsequent allergic reactions. Lysophosphatidylserine (lysoPS) has been known as an exogenous inducer to potentiate histamine release from MCs, though even at submicromolar concentrations. In this study, through SAR studies on lysoPS against MC degranulation, we identified lysoPT, a threonine-containing lysophospholipid and its 2-deoxy derivative as novel strong agonists. LysoPT and its 2-deoxy derivative induced histamine release from MCs both in vitro and in vivo at a concentration less than one-tenth that of lysoPS. Notably, lysoPT did not activate a recently proposed lysoPS receptor on MCs, GPR34, demonstrating the presence of another undefined receptor reactive to both lysoPS and lysoPT that is involved in MC degranulation. Thus, the present strong agonists, lysoPT and its 2-deoxy derivative, will be useful tools to understand the mechanisms of lysoPS-induced activation of degranulation of MCs.

GPR34 is a receptor for lysophosphatidylserine with a fatty acid at the sn-2 position.

GPR34 is a G protein-coupled receptor belonging to the P2Y family. Here, we attempted to resolve conflicting reports about whether it is a functional lysophosphatidylserine (LysoPS) receptor. In HEK293 cells expressing human, mouse or rat GPR34 and Gα chimera between Gαq and Gαi1(Gq/i1), LysoPS quickly elevated intracellular Ca(2+) ion levels ([Ca(2+)](i)). LysoPS also stimulated alkaline phosphatase (AP)-tagged TGFα (AP-TGFα) release in GPR34-expressing HEK293 cells and induced the migration of CHO-K1 cells expressing GPR34. Other lysophospholipids did not induce these actions. Replacement of the serine residue of LysoPS abolished the reactivity of LysoPS with GPR34, indicating that GPR34 strictly recognizes the serine head group of LysoPS. Recombinant phosphatidylserine-specific phospholipase A(1) (PS-PLA(1)) that deacylates fatty acid at the sn-1 position of PS and produces 2-acyl-LysoPS, but not catalytically inactive mutant PS-PLA(1), stimulated the release of AP-TGFα from GPR34-expressing cells. Consistent with the result, LysoPS was detected in the cells treated with wild-type PS-PLA(1) but not with the mutant PS-PLA(1). PS treated with PLA(1) was much more effective at stimulating AP-TGFα release than PS treated with PLA(2). In addition, migration-resistant 2-acyl-1-deoxy-LysoPS, a 2-acyl-LysoPS analogue, was much more potent than 1-acyl-2-deoxy-LysoPS. The present studies confirm that GPR34 is a cellular receptor for LysoPS, especially with a fatty acid at the sn-2 position.

Structure-activity relationships of lysophosphatidylserine analogs as agonists of G-protein-coupled receptors GPR34, P2Y10, and GPR174.

Lysophosphatidylserine (LysoPS) is an endogenous lipid mediator generated by hydrolysis of membrane phospholipid phosphatidylserine. Recent ligand screening of orphan G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) identified two LysoPS-specific human GPCRs, namely, P2Y10 (LPS2) and GPR174 (LPS3), which, together with previously reported GPR34 (LPS1), comprise a LysoPS receptor family. Herein, we examined the structure-activity relationships of a series of synthetic LysoPS analogues toward these recently deorphanized LysoPS receptors, based on the idea that LysoPS can be regarded as consisting of distinct modules (fatty acid, glycerol, and l-serine) connected by phosphodiester and ester linkages. Starting from the endogenous ligand (1-oleoyl-LysoPS, 1), we optimized the structure of each module and the ester linkage. Accordingly, we identified some structural requirements of each module for potency and for receptor subtype selectivity. Further assembly of individually structure-optimized modules yielded a series of potent and LysoPS receptor subtype-selective agonists, particularly for P2Y10 and GPR174.

Lysophosphatidylserine analogues differentially activate three LysoPS receptors

Lysophosphatidylserine (1-oleoyl-2 R-lysophosphatidylserine, LysoPS) has been shown to have lipid mediator-like actions such as stimulation of mast cell degranulation and suppression of T lymphocyte proliferation, although the mechanisms of LysoPS actions have been elusive. Recently, three G protein-coupled receptors (LPS1/GPR34, LPS2/P2Y10 and LPS3/GPR174) were found to react specifically with LysoPS, raising the possibility that LysoPS serves as a lipid mediator that exerts its role through these receptors. Previously, we chemically synthesized a number of LysoPS analogues and evaluated them as agonists for mast-cell degranulation. Here, we used a transforming growth factor-α (TGFα) shedding assay to see if these LysoPS analogues activated the three LysoPS receptors. Modification of the serine moiety significantly reduced the ability of the analogues to activate the three LysoPS receptors, whereas modification of other parts resulted in loss of activity in receptor-specific manner. We found that introduction of methyl group to serine moiety (1-oleoyl-lysophosphatidylallothreonine) and removal of sn-2 hydroxyl group (1-oleoyl-2-deoxy-LysoPS) resulted in reduction of reactivity with LPS1 and LPS3, respectively. Accordingly, we synthesized a LysoPS analogue with the two modifications (1-oleoyl-2-deoxy-lysophosphatidylallothreonine) and found it to be an LPS2-selective agonist. These pharmacological tools will definitely help to identify the biological roles of these LysoPS receptors.

GPR34 as a lysophosphatidylserine receptor

GPR34, a P2Y receptor family member, was identified as a candidate lysophosphatidylserine (LysoPS) receptor in 2006. However, it was controversial whether LysoPS is a real ligand for GPR34. Kitamura et al. (GPR34 is a receptor for lysophosphatidylserine with a fatty acid at the sn-2 position. J. Biochem. 2012;151:511-518), using several methods for detecting activation of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) and chemically synthesized LysoPS analogues, concluded that GPR34 is a cellular receptor for LysoPS, especially with a fatty acid at the sn-2 position. Furthermore, three additional GPCRs belonging to the P2Y family were recently identified as GPCRs for LysoPS, supporting the idea that GPR34 is a LysoPS receptor.

Conformational Constraint of the Glycerol Moiety of Lysophosphatidylserine Affords Compounds with Receptor Subtype Selectivity.

Lysophosphatidylserine (LysoPS) is an endogenous lipid mediator that specifically activates membrane proteins of the P2Y and its related families of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR), GPR34 (LPS1), P2Y10 (LPS2), and GPR174 (LPS3). Here, in order to increase potency and receptor selectivity, we designed and synthesized LysoPS analogues containing the conformational constraints of the glycerol moiety. These reduced structural flexibility by fixation of the glycerol framework of LysoPS using a 2-hydroxymethyl-3-hydroxytetrahydropyran skeleton, and related structures identified compounds which exhibited high potency and selectivity for activation of GPR34 or P2Y10. Morphing of the structural shape of the 2-hydroxymethyl-3-hydroxytetrahydropyran skeleton into a planar benzene ring enhanced the P2Y10 activation potentcy rather than the GPR34 activation.