Lambert Zijp

Respiratory correlated cone beam CT

A cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) scanner integrated with a linear accelerator is a powerful tool for image guided radiotherapy. Respiratory motion, however, induces artifacts in CBCT, while the respiratory correlated procedures, developed to reduce motion artifacts in axial and helical CT are not suitable for such CBCT scanners. We have developed an alternative respiratory correlated procedure for CBCT and evaluated its performance. This respiratory correlated CBCT procedure consists of retrospective sorting in projection space, yielding subsets of projections that each corresponds to a certain breathing phase. Subsequently, these subsets are reconstructed into a four-dimensional (4D) CBCT dataset. The breathing signal, required for respiratory correlation, was directly extracted from the 2D projection data, removing the need for an additional respiratory monitor system. Due to the reduced number of projections per phase, the contrast-to-noise ratio in a 4D scan reduced by a factor 2.6-3.7 compared to a 3D scan based on all projections. Projection data of a spherical phantom moving with a 3 and 5 s period with and without simulated breathing irregularities were acquired and reconstructed into 3D and 4D CBCT datasets. The positional deviations of the phantoms center of gravity between 4D CBCT and fluoroscopy were small: 0.13 +/- 0.09 mm for the regular motion and 0.39 +/- 0.24 mm for the irregular motion. Motion artifacts, clearly present in the 3D CBCT datasets, were substantially reduced in the 4D datasets, even in the presence of breathing irregularities, such that the shape of the moving structures could be identified more accurately. Moreover, the 4D CBCT dataset provided information on the 3D trajectory of the moving structures, absent in the 3D data. Considerable breathing irregularities, however, substantially reduces the image quality. Data presented for three different lung cancer patients were in line with the results obtained from the phantom study. In conclusion, we have successfully implemented a respiratory correlated CBCT procedure yielding a 4D dataset. With respiratory correlated CBCT on a linear accelerator, the mean position, trajectory, and shape of a moving tumor can be verified just prior to treatment. Such verification reduces respiration induced geometrical uncertainties, enabling safe delivery of 4D radiotherapy such as gated radiotherapy with small margins.

Reduction of cardiac and lung complication probabilities after breast irradiation using conformal radiotherapy with or without intensity modulation

PURPOSE The main purpose of this work is to reduce the cardiac and lung dose by applying conformal tangential beam irradiation of the intact left breast with and without intensity modulation, instead of rectangular tangential treatment fields. The extension of the applicability of the maximum heart distance (MHD) to conformal tangential fields as a simple patient selection criterion, identifying patients for which rectangular and conformal tangential fields without intensity modulation will result in unacceptable normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) values for late cardiac mortality (e.g. >2%), was also investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS Three-dimensional treatment planning was performed for 17 left-sided breast cancer patients. Three different tangential beam techniques were compared: (1) optimized wedges without blocks, (2) optimized wedges with conformal blocks and (3) intensity modulation. Plans were evaluated using dose-volume histograms (DVHs) for the planning target volume (PTV), the heart and the lungs. NTCPs for radiation pneumonitis and late cardiac mortality were calculated using the DVH data. The MHD was measured for all rectangular (MHD(rectangular)) and conformal (MHD(conformal)) treatment plans. RESULTS For all patients, on average, part of the PTV receiving a dose between 95 and 107% of the prescribed dose of 50Gy in 25 fractions of 2Gy was 90.8% (standard deviation (SD): 5.0%), 92.8% (SD: 3.5%) and 92.8% (SD: 3.6%) for the intensity modulation radiation therapy (IMRT), conformal and rectangular field treatment techniques, respectively. The NTCP for radiation pneumonitis was 0.3% (SD: 0.1%), 0.4% (SD: 0.4%) and 0.5% (SD: 0.6%) for the IMRT, conformal and rectangular field techniques, respectively. The NTCP for late cardiac mortality was 5.9% (SD: 2.2%) for the rectangular field technique. This value was reduced to 4.0% (SD: 2.3%) with the conformal technique. A further reduction to 2.0% (SD: 1.1%) could be accomplished with the IMRT technique. The NTCP for late cardiac mortality could be described as a second order polynomial function of the MHD. This function could be described with a high accuracy and was independent of the technique for which the MHD was determined (r(2)=0.88). In order to achieve a NTCP value for late cardiac mortality below 1, 2 or 3%, the MHD should be equal to or smaller than 11, 17 or 23 mm, respectively. If such a maximum complication probability cannot be accomplished, a treatment using the IMRT technique should be considered. CONCLUSIONS The use of conformal tangential fields decreases the NTCP for late cardiac toxicity on average by 30% compared to using rectangular fields, while the tangential IMRT technique can further reduce this value by an additional 50%. The MHD can be used to estimate the NTCP for late cardiac mortality if rectangular or conformal tangential treatment fields are used.

Intensity modulated versus non-intensity modulated radiotherapy in the treatment of the left breast and upper internal mammary lymph node chain: a comparative planning study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE To compare and evaluate intensity modulated (IMRT) and non-intensity modulated radiotherapy techniques in the treatment of the left breast and upper internal mammary lymph node chain. MATERIALS AND METHODS The breast, upper internal mammary chain (IMC), heart and lungs were delineated on a computed tomography (CT)-scan for 12 patients. Three different treatment plans were created: (1) tangential photon fields with oblique IMC electron-photon fields with manually optimized beam weights and wedges, (2) wide split tangential photon fields with a heart block and computer optimized wedge angles, and (3) IMRT tangential photon fields. For the IMRT technique, an inverse planning program (KonRad) generated the intensity profiles and a clinical three-dimensional treatment planning system (U-MPlan) optimized the segment weights. U-MPlan calculated the dose distribution for all three techniques. The normal tissue complication probabilities (NTCPs) for the organs at risk (ORs) were calculated for comparison. RESULTS The average root mean square deviation of the differential dose-volume histogram of the breast planning target volume was 4.6, 3.9 and 3.5% and the average mean dose to the IMC was 97.2, 108.0 and 99.6% for the oblique electron, wide split tangent and IMRT techniques, respectively. The average NTCP for the ORs (i.e. heart and lungs) were comparable between the oblique electron and IMRT techniques (<or=0.7%). The wide split tangent technique resulted in higher NTCP values (>or=2%) for the ORs. CONCLUSIONS The lowest NTCP values were found with the oblique electron and the IMRT techniques. The IMRT technique had the best breast and IMC target coverage.

Pretreatment probability model for predicting outcome after intraarterial chemoradiation for advanced head and neck carcinoma

Concurrent chemoradiation is being used increasingly to treat patients with advanced‐stage head and neck carcinoma. In the current study, a clinical nomogram was developed to predict local control and overall survival rates for individual patients who will undergo chemoradiation.

Quantification of the Variability of Diaphragm Motion and Implications for Treatment Margin Construction

PURPOSE To quantify the variability of diaphragm motion during free-breathing radiotherapy of lung patients and its effect on treatment margins to account for geometric uncertainties. METHODS AND MATERIALS Thirty-three lung cancer patients were analyzed. Each patient had 5-19 cone-beam scans acquired during different treatment fractions. The craniocaudal position of the diaphragm dome on the same side as the tumor was tracked over 2 min in the projection images, because it is both easily visible and a suitable surrogate to study the variability of the tumor motion and its impact on treatment margins. Intra-acquisition, inter-acquisition, and inter-patient variability of the respiratory cycles were quantified separately, as were the probability density functions (PDFs) of the diaphragm position over each cycle, each acquisition, and each patient. Asymmetric margins were simulated using each patient PDF and compared to symmetric margins computed from a margin recipe. RESULTS The peak-to-peak amplitude variability (1 SD) was 3.3 mm, 2.4 mm, and 6.1 mm for the intra-acquisition, inter-acquisition, and inter-patient variability, respectively. The average PDF of each cycle was similar to the sin(4) function but the PDF of each acquisition was closer to a skew-normal distribution because of the motion variability. Despite large interfraction baseline variability, the PDF of each patient was generally asymmetric with a longer end-inhale tail because the end-exhale position was more stable than the end-inhale position. The asymmetry of the PDF required asymmetric margins around the time-averaged position to account for the position uncertainty but the average difference was 1.0 mm (range, 0.0-4.4 mm) for a sharp penumbra and an idealized online setup correction protocol. CONCLUSION The respiratory motion is more irregular during the fractions than between the fractions. The PDF of the respiratory motion is asymmetrically distributed. Both the intra-acquisition variability and the PDF asymmetry have a limited impact on dose distributions and inferred margins. The use of a margin recipe to account for respiratory motion with an estimate of the average motion amplitude was adequate in almost all patients.

Design of and technical challenges involved in a framework for multicentric radiotherapy treatment planning studies

This report introduces a framework for comparing radiotherapy treatment planning in multicentric in silico clinical trials. Quality assurance, data incompatibility, transfer and storage issues, and uniform analysis of results are discussed. The solutions that are given provide a useful guide for the set-up of future multicentric planning studies or public repositories of high quality data.

The applicability of simultaneous TRUS-CT imaging for the evaluation of prostate seed implants.

To study dose-effect relations of prostate implants with I-125 seeds, accurate knowledge of the dose distribution in the prostate is essential. Commonly, a post-implant computed tomography (CT) scan is used to determine the geometry of the implant and to delineate the contours of the prostate. However, the delineation of the prostate on CT slices is very cumbersome due to poor contrast between the prostate capsule and surrounding tissues. Transrectal Ultrasound (TRUS) on the other hand offers good visualization of the prostate but poor visualization of the implanted seeds. The purpose of this study was to investigate the applicability of combining CT with 3D TRUS by means of image fusion. The advantage of fused TRUS-CT imaging is that both prostate contours and implanted seeds will be well visible. In our clinic, post-implant imaging was realized by simultaneously acquiring a TRUS scan and a CT scan. The TRUS transducer was inserted while the patient was on the CT couch and the CT scan was made directly after the TRUS scan, with the probe still in situ. With the TRUS transducer being visible on both TRUS and CT images, the geometrical relationship between both image sets could be defined by registration on the transducer. Having proven the applicability of simultaneous imaging, the accuracy of this registration method was investigated by additional registration on visible seeds, after preregistration on the transducer. In 4 out of 23 investigated cases an automatic grey value registration on seeds failed for each of the investigated cost functions, and in 2 cases for both cost functions, due to poor visibility of the seeds on the TRUS scan. The average deviations of the seed registration with respect to the transducer registration were negligible. However, in a few individual cases the deviations were significant and probably due to movement of the patient between TRUS and CT scan. In case of a registration on the transducer it is important to avoid patient movement in-between the TRUS and CT scan and to keep the time in-between the scans as short as possible. It can be concluded that fusion of a CT scan and a simultaneously made TRUS scan by means of a three-dimensional (3D) transducer is feasible and accurate when performing a registration on the transducer, if necessary, fine-tuned by a registration on seeds. These fused images are likely to be of great value for post-implant dose distribution evaluations.

The design and implementation of a multi-center volumetric and dosimetric database

In 1998, a Phase III study for prostate cancer has started applying three-dimensional conformai radiotherapy and randomizing between 68 Gy and 78 Gy. A total of 600 patients from various institutions in The Netherlands will be entered over a period of 4 years. The specific aim of the trial is to determine the relationships between the actual delivered 3D dose and local control and late complications, taking explicitly into account variations in clinical and physical parameters during the treatment period. The complexity of this study requires the development of a new type of database, which offers online access to all patient data and which can be used for sophisticated analyses without extensive user intervention.