Lois James

The Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire: a new tool for assessing and managing sleep in elite athletes

Background/aim The purpose of this study was to develop a subjective, self-report, sleep-screening questionnaire for elite athletes. This paper describes the development of the Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ). Methods A convenience sample of 60 elite athletes was randomly distributed into two groups; 30 athletes completed a survey composed of current psychometric tools, and 30 athletes completed a revised survey and a sleep specialist structured clinical interview. An item analysis was performed on the revised survey with comparison to clinical decisions regarding appropriate intervention based on a sleep specialist assessment. Results A comparison of existing sleep-screening tools with determination of clinical need from a sleep specialist showed low consistency, indicating that current sleep-screening tools are unsuitable for assessing athlete sleep. A new 15-item tool was developed (ASSQ) by selecting items from existing tools that more closely associated with the sleep specialists reviews. Based on test-retest percentage agreement and the κ-statistic, we found good internal consistency and reliability of the ASSQ. To date, 349 athletes have been screened, and 46 (13.2%) identified as requiring follow-up consultation with a sleep specialist. Results from the follow-up consultations demonstrated that those athletes identified by the ASSQ as abnormal sleepers have required intervention. Conclusions The research developed a new athlete-specific sleep-screening questionnaire. Our findings suggest that existing sleep-screening tools are unsuitable for assessing sleep in elite athletes. The ASSQ appears to be more accurate in assessing athlete sleep (based on comparison with expert clinical assessment). The ASSQ can be deployed online and provides clinical cut-off scores associated with specific clinical interventions to guide management of athletes’ sleep disturbance. The next phase of the research is to conduct a series of studies comparing results from the ASSQ to blinded clinical reviews and to data from objective sleep monitoring to further establish the validity of the ASSQ as a reliable sleep screening tool for elite athletes.

Identifying psychophysiological indices of expert vs. novice performance in deadly force judgment and decision making

Objective: To demonstrate that psychophysiology may have applications for objective assessment of expertise development in deadly force judgment and decision making (DFJDM). Background: Modern training techniques focus on improving decision-making skills with participative assessment between trainees and subject matter experts primarily through subjective observation. Objective metrics need to be developed. The current proof of concept study explored the potential for psychophysiological metrics in deadly force judgment contexts. Method: Twenty-four participants (novice, expert) were recruited. All wore a wireless Electroencephalography (EEG) device to collect psychophysiological data during high-fidelity simulated deadly force judgment and decision-making simulations using a modified Glock firearm. Participants were exposed to 27 video scenarios, one-third of which would have justified use of deadly force. Pass/fail was determined by whether the participant used deadly force appropriately. Results: Experts had a significantly higher pass rate compared to novices (p < 0.05). Multiple metrics were shown to distinguish novices from experts. Hierarchical regression analyses indicate that psychophysiological variables are able to explain 72% of the variability in expert performance, but only 37% in novices. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) using psychophysiological metrics was able to discern between experts and novices with 72.6% accuracy. Conclusion: While limited due to small sample size, the results suggest that psychophysiology may be developed for use as an objective measure of expertise in DFDJM. Specifically, discriminant function measures may have the potential to objectively identify expert skill acquisition. Application: Psychophysiological metrics may create a performance model with the potential to optimize simulator-based DFJDM training. These performance models could be used for trainee feedback, and/or by the instructor to assess performance objectively.

Testing the impact of citizen characteristics and demeanor on police officer behavior in potentially violent encounters

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether citizen characteristics (race/ethnicity and attire) or demeanor predicted how officers interacted in simulation scenarios that could turn violent. Design/methodology/approach Controlled-laboratory experiments were conducted during which police participants (n=50) responded to equivalent numbers of black, white, and Hispanic individuals in multiple branching video scenarios in a use-of-force simulator. Within these scenarios, the attire of on-screen individuals was varied (“street” or “business” clothing) as was their demeanor – individuals were either friendly or confrontational. Each scenario had the potential to end peaceably or turn violent, depending on how the officers treated people in the simulator. Findings Multi-level modeling revealed that neither the race/ethnicity nor the attire of on-screen individuals predicted how officers interacted with them. However, the demeanor of on-screen individuals did – officers were significantly more likely to verbally escalate and end up with a deadly outcome when faced with confrontational individuals (f=3.96; df=1, 558; p<0.05). Research limitations/implications These findings offer important new insight into how fairly officers interact with people during routine encounters that have the potential to turn violent, and what this means for perceptions of police legitimacy, procedural justice, and allegations of racial bias. Originality/value This is the first laboratory study to test the impact of citizen characteristics and demeanor on how officers escalate and de-escalate encounters.

The negative impact of prison work on sleep health

OBJECTIVES To examine the prevalence of sleep disorders, deprivation, and quality in a sample of prison employees, and investigate the relationship between exposure to work-related critical incidents and sleep. METHODS We surveyed 355 Washington State Department of Corrections employees. The survey included the Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index and the Critical Incident History Questionnaire. RESULTS We found 28% and 45% of the sample reported suffering from Apnea and insomnia, respectively. Over half of the sample reporting sleeping less than 2 h between shifts and being constantly fatigued. We found significant associations between exposure to critical incidents and sleep problems. CONCLUSIONS Prison workers are in desperate need of help to improve their sleep. Our findings suggest the importance of continued investigation of prison worker sleep health using objective measures, toward the development of programs for improving sleep and resilience to critical incidents and stress.

Does the “reverse racism effect” withstand the test of police officer fatigue?

Purpose Policing faces several critical problems, the most immediate of which are arguably public perceptions of racial bias, and widely prevalent officer fatigue related to shift work and long work hours. The purpose of this paper is to determine whether the “reverse racism effect” still occurred when officers were extremely fatigued. Design/methodology/approach Controlled laboratory experiments were conducted during which experienced police patrol officers responded to black and white suspects in deadly force judgment and decision-making simulations on two occasions; once immediately following the last of five consecutive 10:40 hours patrol shifts (fatigued condition) and again 72 hours after completing the last shift in a cycle (rested condition). Findings Contrary to expectations, the authors found that officer fatigue did not significantly affect shooting behavior. Furthermore, the authors did not find a significant interaction between officer fatigue and suspect race on either reaction time to shoot or the likelihood of shooting an unarmed suspect. Thus, the reverse racism effect was observed both when officers were rested and fatigued. Research limitations/implications As policing agencies around the country respond to allegations of racial bias, both the public and police search for empirical evidence about whether negative perceptions are accurate about officers’ motivations in deadly encounters. The research reported here provides insight about how fatigue effects officers’ decisions to shoot black vs white suspects, and directly addresses this high profile and divisive national issue. Originality/value This is the first valid experimental test of the impact of fatigue on officer shooting behavior, and the interaction between police fatigue and suspect race on decisions to shoot.

How police officers perform in encounters with the public: Measuring what matters at the individual level

Purpose This research developed and implemented a novel method for creating interval-level metrics for objectively assessing police officer behaviors during an encounter with the public. These behaviors constitute officer performance and affect the probability of desirable encounter outcomes. The metrics measure concrete, micro-level performance in the types of complex, dynamic, and low-information police-public encounters that are common and often require immediate action using “naturalistic” decision making. Difficulty metrics also were developed to control for situational variability. The utility of measuring what officers do vs. probabilistic outcomes is explored with regard to informing policymaking, field practice, and training. Design/methodology/approach Metric sets were developed separately for three types of police-public encounters: deadly force judgment and decision making, cross-cultural tactical social interaction, and crisis intervention. In each, “reverse concept mapping” was used with a d...

A Systematic Social Observation Study of Police De-Escalation Tactics:

This study analyzes 131 police–citizen interactions observed during Fall 2016 and coded through systematic social observation. We assessed how often officers use de-escalation tactics, factors associated with their use, and the relationship between de-escalation and calm citizen demeanor. We found officers frequently employed de-escalation tactics, including the “respect” tactic of treating citizens in a respectful manner, the “human” tactic of getting on the citizen’s level and reducing power imbalances, and the “honest” tactic of being up front about the facts of the situation. Officers were more influenced by citizen demeanor than demographics in their use of de-escalation. The use of several tactics, including “human” (reducing the power differential between the cop and the citizen) and “calm” (the officer making an effort to control his or her own emotions), was associated with calm citizen demeanor. Directions for future research on this important topic are offered.

The Stability of Implicit Racial Bias in Police Officers

Research on police officers has found that they tend to associate African Americans with threat. Little is known however about the stability of implicit racial bias in police officers, whose attitudes could be expected to fluctuate based on their day-to-day encounters or from internal stressors such as fatigue. To investigate, this study tested 80 police officers using the Weapons Implicit Association Test (IAT) on four separate occasions. Officers’ sleep was also monitored using wrist actigraphy. Officers’ IAT scores varied significantly across the testing days (f = 2.36; df = 1.468; p < .05), and differences in IAT scores were associated with officers’ sleep (f = 6.49; df = 1.468; p < .05). These findings indicate that implicit racial bias was not stable among officers, and that when officers slept less prior to testing they demonstrated stronger association between Black Americans and weapons. The implications of these findings within the current climate of police–citizen unrest are discussed.

Investigating perceptions of race and ethnic diversity among prospective police officers

Abstract Many have suggested police diversity will improve police-community relations, but research testing this hypothesis is inconclusive. We investigated perceptions of police race, ethnicity, and diversity in a heterogeneous sample of prospective police officers. Data are drawn from interviews with 42 criminal justice college students in the Southwestern United States, of which 15 were Hispanic, and who each wanted to become a police officer. Participants supported diversity in policing, and collectively expressed a belief that race plays a central role in policing today. Furthermore, participants expressed support for the ideals of both passive and active representative bureaucracy. Hispanics in the sample in particular anticipated they would positively affect police relations in Hispanic neighborhoods and encourage immigrants to cooperate with police.

Prison employment and post-traumatic stress disorder: Risk and protective factors

OBJECTIVES To examine the prevalence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in a sample of prison employees, investigate risk factors, and explore protective factors for PTSD. METHODS We surveyed 355 Washington State Department of Corrections employees. The survey included the PTSD checklist for the DSM-5 (PCL-5), the Critical Incident History Questionnaire, and the Work Environment Inventory. RESULTS We found 19% of the sample met the criteria for diagnosable PTSD. Several risk factors were associated with a higher PCL-5 score, including exposure to critical incidents, and having greater ambiguity in the job role. Being happy with job assignments and having positive relationships with supervisors and coworkers were associated with decreased PCL-5 score. CONCLUSIONS Prison employees have a PTSD rate equivalent to Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans and higher than police officers, suggesting the importance of developing programs for promoting resilience to stress, incorporating the knowledge gained on risk, and protective factors.